Monday, September 30, 2019
Building &HR managers
Being one of the HR managers assigned to building a global-based team for the international sales division, the cultures of different members who can possibly be part of the team need to be researched. In a team composed of members with different nationalities, each oneââ¬â¢s cultural background needs to be taken into consideration so all their actions, gestures and attitude towards work will be better understood. The differences in cultural background matter when the employees are evaluated for their performance. The approach to coaching and mentoring the members will also be different from each other.Among the four regions, the two countries I chose to make a brief research on are Brazil from the Latin American region and China from Asia. Coming from separate geographical regions, these two countries have major differences when it comes to their way of living, classes in the society, and even their business culture. CHINA China is one of the largest countries in the world. It ha s also become the second largest economic entity in the world (ââ¬Å"Doing Business in China,â⬠2004) after 20 years of hard work and continuous efforts of its entire population.Chinese people are known to be hardworking and are really good in their own respective fields. If Chinese individuals would be part of the international sales team, their culture should be studied and understood so we can know how to properly deal with Chinese people and allow for a better working relationship with other team members. Some of the things that should be remembered are as follows: â⬠¢ Guanxi, synonymous to relationship, is important to Chinese people especially when working or doing business with them.It simply means Chinese value friendship at work or business. It is important for them to be friends with their co-workers and peers. â⬠¢ Chinese people value saving more than others. Most of them put almost 40% of their income in savings. But despite this, they can also be generous when it comes to inviting peers and business partners to dinners. When it comes to the role of women in Chinese society, China is not different from most of its neighboring countries. Chinese women are known to have very low status in the society.In the early days, women only stay in homes to take care of the family and not allowed to join the work force. But as time passes, more and more Chinese women have become well-educated and are now able to get the jobs that they want. Still, they still keep the responsibility of maintaining their homes and taking care of the kids and husband. Chinese women are also commonly the ones taking control of the finances of their family. BRAZIL Brazil is one of the most successful countries in Latin America when it comes to economy.Brazilians are known to always get things done easily or otherwise. Their key to this ability is ââ¬Å"jeito. â⬠According to ââ¬Å"Doing Business in Brazilâ⬠(2004), ââ¬Å"jeito can help conquer seemingly in surmountable tasks, rally the team, or get you out of messes. [â⬠¦] It can also help your company gets its foot in the door for submitting a proposal for a project when a deadline has already passed. â⬠This trait is worth knowing when considering Brazilians to be part of the international sales team. They have the ability to think out-of-the-box.They can be very creative in their own ways which can lead to the success of a business. They are known to think better and are more comfortable when working in groups. Brazil doesnââ¬â¢t have much difference with China when it comes to the roles women play in their society. Brazilians, just like other Latinos, have a high respect to the family. Women are known to only stay at home and be responsible for the well-being of the children and their own husbands. But recently, women are breaking into the work force and contributing to the family, as well, in terms of financial matters.Brazilian women can now take jobs that are usuall y only done by men. More of them are also known to pursue advanced degrees to improve their skills and capabilities. References Doing Business in Brazil. (2004). In globalEDGE Online Course Modules. Retrieved July 31, 2006 from http://globaledge. msu. edu/academy/courses. asp Doing Business in China. (2004). In globalEDGE Online Course Modules. Retrieved July 31, 2006 from http://globaledge. msu. edu/academy/courses. asp
Sunday, September 29, 2019
Analysing Salinity In The River Murray Environmental Sciences Essay
The Murray River is one of the biggest rivers in Australia and spans three provinces: Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia. The entire length is 2756 kilometers and has 4 major dikes and 16 storage weirs and 15 navigable locks. The Murray River is a topographic point for a big scope sum of species such as birds, wetland birds, fishes and floras. Today, there are more menaces to the river particularly to the quality of the H2O in Murray River. The low quality of H2O will act upon many industries and human being that rely on the river Murray. One index of H2O quality is the salt degree in the H2O. The salt degree is really high in most portion of the river, particularly in the Coorong, Lower lakes and Murray Mouth. The lessening in H2O flows to these countries caused addition in salt degree which reduces the H2O quality of the river. Still, the salt degree fluctuates at a really short clip because it is being influenced by the flows from up watercourse and the tidal moving ridge. The Living Murray Program ( LMP ) is a response plan to the environmental jobs in the Murray River. It aims to presenting back the H2O into the river to accomplish an environmentally healthier river system that benefits all Australian. The plan was established in 2002 and the first plan was implemented in 2004 to delivered back 5000GL of H2O to the Murray River to profit workss, animate beings and Australian along the river. It was besides aims to better the environmental public presentation of six topographic points that designated as icon sites due to their high ecological and cultural values. The plan provides H2O to retaining, retrieving and bettering the ecosystems, home grounds and species of vegetations and zoologies in these sites. Among all icon sites, The Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth have the highest salt degree. The LMP and other related plans under the LMP attempt to work out the jobs. This essay critiques the LMP and related plans on their effort to cut down the salt degree in Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth countries. This essay besides describes the benefits, strengths and failings of the LMP regrading salt issues. The River Murray and the Murray-Darling Basin The Murray-Darling Basin ( MDB ) covers the country of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia. The rivers provide services for the 2.7 million people ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2007 ) . The MDB has a saline status and due to human activities in the last two decennaries through irrigation and dike, the salt degree has been increasing significantly. This status is non a good status for agribusiness, H2O supplies and environment ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2000 ) . The increasing degree of salt in the Murray River is caused by some alterations on the H2O direction system. Naturally, the Murray River is flown by high degree of salt and the natural barrier which came from the form of the Murray River H2O flows prevent the belowground flows to make the sea a create salty deposit bed beneath the upper current which create high degree of salt within the river of course. However, alterations like higher rate of irrigation and, clearance of new land of agricultural industry had accelerated the degree of salt in the river and increasing it significantly ( Quiggin, 1988 ) . Table 1. Salt degrees in the River Murray Murray-Darling Basin Salting. Metric tons of salt mobilised to come up in each State for selected old ages. State 1998 2020 2050 2100 SA 434,000 640,000 870,000 1,020,000 VIC 740,000 825,000 1,150,000 1,370,000 Naval special warfare 3,707,000 5,000,000 6,140,000 7,690,000 QLD 186,000 255,000 256,000 256,000 Murray-Darling Basin Salting. Annual entire salt mobilization in metric tons for selected old ages.A1998 2020 2050 2100 Sum 5,100,000 6,800,000 8,500,000 10,400,000 ( beginning: MDBMC, 1987 ) Due to increasing degree of salt in the Murray River H2O, species which of course live with Murray River as their natural home ground will bit by bit extinct since their organ could non accommodate with high degree of salt ( Nielsen et al. 2003 ) . While some types of plantation and carnal manage to set their variety meats to the increasing degree of salt, the impact is still important and even makes their lives shortened. In add-on, substructure nearby the salty river can be easy damaged and the quality of land, particularly for agricultural intents will dramatically diminish which caused the doomed of productive land. If authorities continues their undertaking to pull off the salt degree in the Murray River by pumping the river H2O and turn up it in an country where it so vaporize and infiltrate into the land will profit by making a healthy Murray flood-plain flora and promote 135 species of birds to populate in the country ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2003 ) . The Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth The H2O quality in Coorong country determine the H2O quality of its environing countries, particularly in four territory parts of chief channel of the lower Murray, the lower Lake Alexandria and Lake Albert, the Northern Lagoon of the Coorong and the Southern Lagoon of the Coorong. The high value of Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth have been doing these countries became iconic sites. Naturally, the Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth have a high degree of salt because of the H2O flows to the country is already low both in quality and measure. These countries are located in the down watercourse at the very terminal of the Murray River system. There are 593 Gatess and 5 bombardments in the Coorong built in 1035 and 1940 to protect the Coorong from the Lower Lakes. The H2O flow from the upstream influence the H2O in the Coorong. The Murray Mouth, Coorong and Lower lakes is an country of 140.000 hectares. This country is of import because it is a native topographic point for several species of birds, fish and floras and one of the biggest wetland sites that provide an economic sciences value through its fish. Furthermore, Coorong that has 140 kilometer length is one of the icon sites for waterfowls. Environmental aims delivered in this country through EWMP were making a healthier Coorong and Lower Lakes countries ; pull offing the transition through Murray Mouth ; supplying best status for fish spawning and increasing wading birds home ground in Lower Lakes. The biggest aims in this country is to cut down the salt degree and manage H2O degree fluctuation in Murray Mouth, Coorong and Lower Lakes by constructing Gatess that installed on selected bombardments. The dredging plan in the Murray oral cavity besides one of the efforts to do the Murray Mouth environmentally healthier. Figure 1. Murray Mouth, Coorong and Lower Lakes ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2008 ) . The Living Murray Program The Living Murray Program ( TLMP ) is a Response plan to the environmental debasement in Murray River system. Established in mid 2002 by the Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council ( MDBMC ) , it aimed to pull off the H2O flow to run into the appropriate degree to keep the healthy status of the river. The plan was besides set to protect the agricultural concern, the communities, natural and cultural values along the Basin ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2004 ) . Furthermore, in 2003, The MDBMC decided to better environmental benefit in six countries include Murray Mouth, Coorong and Lower Lakes. The marks were: recovery of up to an estimated norm of 500GL/ twelvemonth of H2O ; bettering environmental benefits for all countries on the $ 150 million ; bettering the direction capacity ; constitution of autochthonal partnership and farther work to better the environmental benefit from the six designated countries. The countries were chosen because of their importance on national, regional and international ecological system ; the hazards they face and the economic sciences and cultural values they have ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2004 ) . The Environmental Works and Measure Program ( EWMP ) is a long term plan tallies from 2003 to 2011 as an built-in portion of the Living Murray Program. In October 2002, the EWMP had dredging plan in the Murray Mouth to keep and reconstruct the environmental wellness in Coorong and Lower Lakes. This plan was successful in keeping an gap in drouth in 2003 and 2004 ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2004 ) . There were several menaces to the wellness of Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth in footings of salt degree: terrible drouth cause low flows of H2O or no flow at all through the bombardments ; the average one-year flow is 27 % under natural status ; sudden passage between saline and fresh water at the bombardments and cut down interaction between sea and river, including that the Murray oral cavity is at hazard of closing on norm in one twelvemonth in three. The Actions of EWMP were: making of a new ââ¬Å" River Murray estuary environmental allotment â⬠of about 180GL in every twelvemonth ; Target flushing of oral cavity in accomplishing flows go throughing Barrages in summer and fall in dry old ages ; bettering greater control of the Barrages and triping many species to bread during wet old ages. Between 2003-2011, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation in South Australia was running a plan to remotely operates the Barrages Gatess. The aims was to heightening the environmental wellness of the Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth by increasing the flexibleness of control of bombardments releases at selected locations and cut downing the salt fluctuation and H2O degree fluctuation and bettering connectivity between the sea and the Coorong. This undertaking is an built-in portion of the LMP since the results were reported to the Murray Management Plan. The Restoration and sweetening dredging in the Murray oral cavity was besides aimed to increase the environmental wellness of the Coorong and Lower Lakes. The plan is running from 2004 and estimated to be finished in 2011. The results are installing of 10 remotely operated Gatess at the Tauwitchere Barrage ; remotely operated Gatess will be installed on selected bombardments supplying improved operational flexibleness compared to the current manually operated Gatess ; A concern instance based on current monitoring, morphological modeling and probes of a figure of environmental wellness indexs to find whether dredging beyond the current dredging plan will profit the Coorong and Lower Lakes environment and If the concern instance is positive, execution of an enhanced dredging plan to reconstruct, enhance and prolong the environmental wellness of the Coorong and Lower Lakes ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2004 ) . The LMP allocated 15GL of H2O to be released in 2005 and 2006. The primary aims were to supply the best status for some of the native fishes to engender and to increase the estuarial country. Therefore, due to many betterments on LMP program, in July 2005 H2O was released through the bombardments and this status allowed some of the native fish to finish their life rhythm. This status showed that the Coorong was ecologically healthier. The dredging undertaking besides showed a important addition in the flora in the Murray Mouth. Furthermore, in 2006, some native fishes were found and release near the bombardments which means that the H2O quality in that country was suited for them. The MDBC claimed that these two aims were achieved. However, the absence of the control site made some of these groundss weak. LMP prosperity will go a weak grounds of ecological status betterment without any control site. Furthermore, there is no effort to warrant some of these betterments by comparing with the other impact on the other similar sites. The Living Murray Program and Salinity Issues Reducing the salt degree is of import and needs committedness from all histrions: persons, communities and authorities. Many research reported that the salt degree continue to increase along the river. Several betterments in irrigation system and direction, H2O distribution system and salt interception system seem fail to get by the salt issues. The addition Numberss of irrigation system along the river significantly increase the salt degree in the river ( Schrobback et al. 2008 ) . Human activity within 40 kilometers is believed to be the ground to this addition every bit good. The salt in the River Murray largely came from the shallow dirt. Deforestation and flora remotion from the shallow dirt land caused the salt entered into the river ( Quiggin. 1988 ) . The monitoring plan showed the informations that there was no consistent increasing in salt degree in the South Lagoon. The salt in the South Lagoon is 2 to 3 times of the saltwater and it was still in that scope. This is means that the LMP is non affected in cut downing salt in the Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth. Figure 2. The Five Barrages in Murray Mouth, Coorong, and Lower Lakes ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2007 ) Five bombardments were built in the Coorong, Murray Mouth, and Lower Lakes. Those are Goolwa, Mundoo, Boundary Creek, Ewe Island and Tauwitchere. The chief intent of the bombardments were to insulate the fresh H2O in the Lower lakes and the Murray River. Furthermore, these bombardments were meant to take downing down the salt degree in the lower River Murray and Lakes ; bracing the river degree ; concentrating the flow to the sea to a peculiar country during low flows and to keeping the pool H2O to be pumped for Adelaide ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2008 ) . Since the dredging undertaking in 2003, the best tidal scope has been making the Murray Mouth estuaries. However, the bombardments did non run into the mark since they merely had a low freshening impact on the country near the bombardments. There is no important grounds on salt degree after the 640GL of H2O released in 2005 and 2006. The deficiency of attending on monitoring and mensurating the salt degree worsen the grounds that the LMP merely had a minor affect on the H2O quality. The other aim in presenting back the H2O of the LMP in this icon site was supplying more frequent estuarine fish spawning. The MDBC claimed that this nonsubjective partly meets the mark since the figure of estuarial addition during the releases but in the South Lagoon the status was still saline. Furthermore, the last aim was heightening the bird home ground. The mark was achieved in winter but exceeded in summer. However, the salt in the Lakes was still high except during the releases. These groundss show that the bombardments system in influence the salt degree, even though the consequence was minor, their public presentation in commanding the releases is of import. There were failings and strengths in the bombardments releases method like addition in apprehension of the reaction of the Coorong and surround country to the low flow of H2O ; the grounds that show the accomplishable benefit from let go ofing H2O less than 750 GL ; addition in understanding on the sum of H2O needed to blush anoxic deposit and the importance of let go ofing the H2O from Gatess in different bombardments. In order to let go of fresh and oxygenated H2O to come in Coorong ; sand dredging method and bombardment release, method commanding the H2O degree in the lower lakes and at the same clip maintaining the Murray Mouth unfastened, are used to pull strings the lake degree. The benefit of such method is comparatively broad, non merely for the wading bird bird home ground but besides human activities such as irrigation and domestic usage. The bombardment method can besides be used for cut downing the salt degree of the H2O in other countries like in Lake Alexandria and Lake Albert. Manipulating the H2O degree in Lake Albert can do the saline H2O to flux outside the lake and cut down the salt degree. The bombardment theoretical account is proven to be able to cut down the salt degree in the Goolwa, Mundo and Coorong channels. Prior to the H2O release from the bombardment in September 2003, preliminary research had been indicated that non or minimum connectivity between Goolwa and Tauwitchere to the Murray river had increased the degree of salination, stagnancy and besides had increased the temperature degree of the H2O every bit good as lowered the degree of dissolved O. This event was conducted by joint cooperation of river operators, research workers from SARDI and besides the natural resource directors. The event occurred in 2003 has impacted positively to the environment since it outflows and freshened the Murray Mouth country by blending the H2O in North laguna. In add-on, the estuarial status had been established for a short clip together with the impermanent proviso of foods and phytoplankton in North Lagoon. Such event besides caused the Black Beam fish larvae being collected which suggested that the flow might haveA caused spawning. Figure 3. Barrages in Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2008 ) Even though the impact of such event was really short, it was a difficult grounds of how barrage method can be really successful. The similar event was so repeated in August 2004. The bombardment method shown that bombardment flows of at least 2,000 ML/day and may keep the Murray Mouth to be opened comparatively and besides prevent sand to ingress. It is besides shown that ââ¬Ëscouring ââ¬Ë of sand from the oral cavity did non happen with big volumes. Finally, direction system of fluxing H2O through bombardment has to be focused on the attempt to forestall H2O from come ining the oral cavity alternatively of taking sand after its being formatted inside.A The Water Quality Monitoring Program ( WQMP ) The WQMP is a plan aims to bring forth study and appraisal on the River Murray H2O quality that can be used as ushers and recommendation in plan constitution in the river direction system. The WQMP started its activity in 1978 in roll uping bio chemicals informations from the river on 36 sites. Statistically, between 15 to 18 bio-chemicals parametric quantities are measured every hebdomad along the length of Boundary Creek, which located between Mundo Island and Eve Island, in six monitoring sites. The WQMP provides the information sing the salt in several periods of clip from 1978 to 2000. However, it did non supply the information of H2O quality after the LMP is delivered. However, in relation to the LMP plan, the WQMP information is utile as a comparing of the information before and after the LMP plan. It besides helps in supplying the recommendation on the current direction to better the wellness of the river particularly sing icon site. Figure 4: The Water Quality Monitoring Program ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2009 ) The consequence of H2O trying from six supervising sites indicates that the 24 hr freshening activity, which occurred between 25th of August and the 27th of October 2005, A had maintain the salt degree below saltwater salt. In add-on the salt readings had indicated that the 1 m tide did non perforate past the oral cavity of boundary brook on the first September. In 14th of October, high tide indicated that some estuarial H2O was able to force up Boundary brook despite the influence was merely less than 200 m ( Murray-Darling Basin Commission 2009 ) . Decision The LMP is a plan run by three provinces in Australia that aims to retrieve and better the River Murray status that will profit all Australian by maintaining the natural being of the river which has economic sciences, ecology and cultural values. Many species and native species rely on the river and a low H2O quality on the river will do important consequence on the life things includes human along the river. Salt is a immense job for the River Murray since the natural feature of this river is already saline. Human activities over two centuries increase the salt degree of the H2O and cut down its quality. In Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth, the salt jobs is significantly act uponing the ecology and environmental conditions since the country is the lowest terminal of the flow that influenced by the human activities in the upper watercourse. The LMP is non supplying the existent and specific informations on salt degree in this country. Furthermore, the aims of this icon site are largely to better the life status for the birds and fishes. The prosperity of the LMP can be seen from the salt degree as an of import indexs in WQMP. The before and after informations was provided by the WQMP ; nevertheless, the LMP did non go on supervising the salt degree, hence the prosperity of LMP is non evidently recorded by the clear informations. The absence of the control site is one of the failings of the LMP. Without comparing the alterations in the wedged site to the control citation, the alterations can non be seen as strong grounds on the prosperity of the LMP. As the whole plan, LMP give good alterations in bettering environmental conditions of the river in Coorong, Lower Lakes and Murray Mouth. However, the grounds was non clear plenty in depicting LMP prosperity to cut down salt job of this icon site. Abbreviations and acronyms EWMP: Environmental Works and Measures Program GL: Gigalitre ( 1 billion liters ) ICM: Integrated Catchment Management MDBMC: Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council NAPSWQ: National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality TLMP: The Living Murray Program MDB: Murray-Darling Basin
Saturday, September 28, 2019
The Technology behind MMOG or MMORPG Lab Report
The Technology behind MMOG or MMORPG - Lab Report Example The ever growing internet is one of the factors that can be attributed to the huge success that is witnessed in gaming. It has made it possible to have improvements on the dedicated gaming on the game consoles, the gaming PCs and most importantly, the chance to engage with other players irrespective of their global positioning. The advert of the Smart phones and mobile broadband has also made it possible for people to access the games using their mobile phones. This has also led to an increase in the number of companies that are developing games. Private developers have also not been left out especially after the launch of Android open source platform. Traditionally, gaming was seen as a thing for young boys. This has however changed significantly over the years thanks to the introduction of mobile phones and social networks. Developers have come up with games that are friendly to children, women and even girls. Some of these additions include puzzles, quizzes, arcades and even educa tional games. In fact, it has been observed that women gamers even outnumber their male counterparts in some age sets (Adolph, 2010). The best indicator to how much gaming has impacted the current society is the reports given in the Technology watch report by Adolph (2010). Reportedly, a gaming company lost over 171 million dollars when it experienced a one month outage. Terminals and platforms The gaming industry has seen a huge improvement not only in hardware but also in software over the years. In fact, gaming usually reflects the best and state-of-the-art electronics that are available in the era. The gaming industry has come along way. It began as single game units otherwise known as the pong machines which were placed in arcade halls in the 70s and the 80s. This was followed by the gaming consoles in the 90s and PC games also came on the scene almost concurrently with the gaming consoles. The PC game revolution paved way for easier and more convenient gaming since the games c ould be transported on ROM cartridges, tapes, CD-ROMS and DVDs. This is known as the sneakernet method of transporting games. The evolution in the gaming industry was rapid but the rapid development brought with it the challenge of lack of interoperability. The incompatibility of games and accessories of the games on the platforms provided was a huge challenge not only to the gamers but also to the developers. The advent of social networks and mobile phones has greatly helped to reduce the issues of interoperability but the challenges are still not fully solved. There are still many games that are platform locked (Adolf, 2010). Consoles Microsoft, Sega, Nintendo, Sony and Sega have taken the game industry by storm. They have likewise changed over the years in response to the changing environment in the ICT world. Some of the considerable advancements that have been introduced over the years are network functions, input devices like guitars, joy sticks and other natural user interfac es. The graphics of consoles have greatly been enhanced too. Each company has come up with its own devices that are locked to their platform in a bid to lock in the customers they have. This is a disadvantage to the gamers since the environment makes it impossible for gamers to use any third part accessories on the consoles. In fact, it is not even possible to transfer ones scores in a game from one console to another. Personal computers The contribution of
Friday, September 27, 2019
Enviromantal analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Enviromantal analysis - Essay Example The access to natural resources takes care of a wide range of critically relevant concerns in relation to the project which would cover the political, economic and environmental aspects. It has been evidently proven that there is an ethical and sustainable exploitation and sharing of natural resources by the indigenous population. Their approach towards these resources is very much environmental friendly as well. Thus communities depend on these natural resources environmentally and economically. One of the threats persisting in the implementation of the project is that this may limit or even totally prevent the access of the local community on these natural resources. This would serve as a political incorrectness of the project. Ethically, the resources are to be owned by the local population and the communities that had inhabit the place. The project holds the threat of denying this right to them. A possible way of addressing this problem is by ensuring local participation. The local people must be made aware of the potential benefits of the project. Employment possibilities must be generated for them. They must be convinced on the environmental, political and economical feasibility of the project. The initial discussions must include representatives from the local population. A project of massive level would involve displacement of the local population. They would loose their shelter and mode of living. The denial of access to the natural resources which they depended on would affect the sustainability of the population. This would moreover create a state of social insecurity among the people as well. A proper backup system for the reestablishment of the displaced communities must be ensured. Their capacity building and involvement in the project workforce would address the issue to a major extend. So as to compensate the direct economic loss in terms of access to livelihood systems, shelter, land and other resources, the victims must be properly
Thursday, September 26, 2019
Asian Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words
Asian Management - Essay Example In this context, the management has to be reformed in order to meet the requirements set by the constantly changing environment. Currently, management presents two forms covering the needs of privatised sector and SOEs. Under these terms, SOEs are subjects either to the line system (depended on the central industrial ministry) or the block system (representing the local government institutions). As of the main industrial areas in which SEOs operate, the following ones can be used as an indicative sample: oil, telecommunications, aviation, power and steel. The role of the management team to the performance of the above organizations has been considered as significant, however the presence of particular elements (like the close dependency from the central government or the use of a highly bureaucratic system when applying the managerial plans in practice) often create a net of negative influences to the managementââ¬â¢s daily operations. In the modern industrial and economic environment, governments not only ââ¬Ëshape their countrys economy but also their culture and penetrate deeply into the dynamics of organizationsââ¬â¢. Moreover (Tjosvold, 2002, 741) organizations must be understood ââ¬Ëwithin their larger context, in particular in terms of their dependence on governmentââ¬â¢. In this context, facilitative governments are ââ¬Ësupportive of independent organizations, operate through predictable laws and regulations, and are strong, whereas nonfacilitative governments are hostile, erratic, and weak; organization and management in the embrace of government shows that nonfacilitative governments require managers to accommodate to complex dependenciesââ¬â¢. Particularly regarding China, managers in private companies, ââ¬Ëunsure how to cope with many vague and contradictory laws, indicated that they were dependent upon the good graces of government officials more than established state-owned enter prises (SOEs)ââ¬â¢. On the other hand it has been proved (Zhu, 1994, 1, 12)
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
TOXOPLASNOSIS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
TOXOPLASNOSIS - Essay Example The disease is caused by the protozoan parasites known as Toxoplasma gondii (Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, 2013). The parasite has been found in various parts of the world, in many species. Most of the species includes carnivorous and herbivorous mammals and birds. Moreover, the disease is prevalent in all human population. However, the carrier of the parasite is usually the cat and is primarily associated with the transmission of parasites in all human population (David et al., n.d.). The infection is usually reported having spread in human by eating contaminated meat especially pork and lamb (David et al., n.d.). On the other hand, the parasite has been shown to be prevalent in women of childbearing age usually 15 to 44 years of age (David et al., n.d.). As a result, the parasite has attracted attention of healthcare provider in pregnant women. The parasite is transmitted in various ways. The major form of transmission is through food (Centres for Disease Contr ol and Prevention (CDC), 2013). Most, the tissue form of parasites is transmitted to human through the food. The transmission occurs through eating undercooked or contaminated meat, failure to wash hand after handling contaminated meat, and eating food on utensils that had contact with raw contaminated meat (CDC, 2013). Secondly, transmission may occur from animal to human. Usually cats are infected by eating infected animals (CDC, 2013). Consequently, the parasite is shed in cat faeces as oocyst. As a result, people are infected in various ways. The infection may occur through ingestion of oocyst after cleaning a catââ¬â¢s litter box, ingestion of oocyst after touching or ingesting anything in proximity with cats faeces, or drinking water that have parasites from a catââ¬â¢s faeces (CDC, 2013). Moreover, infection can be passed from mother to unborn child. The infection occurs during pregnancy where parasites pass to the unborn child (CDC, 2013). Additionally, the parasites m ay be passed through organ transplant. The recipient may get parasites if the donor has already been infected by the parasite (CDC, 2013). However, it is rare for the parasite to be passed through blood donation. In most cases, the parasite affects people without being noticed. In fact, the infection is asymptomatic in 80% of people (Department of Health, 2007). However, the most common sign in individuals infected with the parasite is enlarged lymph nodes usually around the neck (Department of Health, 2007). The other symptoms include muscle pain, intermittent fever and malaise (Department of Health, 2007). The infection arising after birth mostly leads to mild illness. On the other hand, dominant infection may occur in a lifetime. However, the symptoms may reactivate once an individual immune system is compromised. In immune suppressed patients, the disease may develop with serious complications such as in the heart, brain, and pneumonia (Department of Health, 2007). Most of the c omplications lead to death. In individuals with AIDS, cerebral toxoplasmosis is frequent form of complication (Department of Health, 2007). On the other hand, severe toxoplasmosis during pregnancy may affect the unborn child (Department of Health, 2007). The infection leads to serious complications such as brain damage, liver damage, and spleen and eye disorders. Moreover, infection during pregnancy leads to severe complications for the foetus. The
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
Global Issues in Design and Visuality in the 21st Century Cultural Essay
Global Issues in Design and Visuality in the 21st Century Cultural Analysis of the street - Essay Example The shape, dimension and structure of a civilization can vary. A educational collection can be a extensively scattered small figure of people, who shares a ordinary put of norms and values, or it be able to be a nation - smooth our world can be looked upon because a customer ambitious, capitalist civilization. Broken down, culture cannot live on it's own. It relies on the communication flanked by a dispatcher and a handset. It is in this interaction - the indoctrination and decode of a exacting communication, followed by the formation of meaning that civilization comes into existents; continually changing as it emerge and disappear into realism. The meaning creation can take put as it has done from the dawn of man type, from side to side conversation, playing, dancing etc. But as time has distorted, the ways that we interrelate with every other has changed the length of its side. From the industrialisation and onwards, novel technologies have open a new era of person interaction, allowing one-to-many message, defined as mass-communication. Mass message is generally the procedure of a expert communicator sending a communication reproduced from side to side electric or automatic equipment to a varied and anonyms audience. Newspapers, radio, television, cinema and the Internet are all instances of mass communiqu. Us as active participants in civilization, are daily bare to the various mail makes by mass communicators, and are continually in process of creating sense and defining civilization. The specific instance of popular civilization that I will analyse is music television (MTV). I will analyse it in conditions of; - Its place on the worldwide educational marked, - Its influence on the connotation creation of its audience - Its structure and place inside its surrounding civilization and surrounded by society. MTV is a cultural occurrence in our cotemporary civilization, living and mouthful of air through its spectators and their awareness and identity. It is a suitable subject of learn since of its widespread fame and its self-imposed educational aesthetics. What extra to speak than MTV is MTV. MTV, make and accumulation consumerism On August 1. 1981, MTV was launched for the primary time into educational awareness. Immortalizing itself the original VJ (Video jockey) kicked off with the language "ladies and gentlemen, rock 'n' roll," appropriate follow by "the Buggles" "Video killed the radio star" The first melody video network was born and complete it clear that music, or at smallest quantity the marketing of music, would turn out to be a visual medium, and the melody manufacturing hasn't been the similar since. When looking at MTV today it is firm to imagine that this enormous help figure, on one occasion was on the tilt of continued existence. The astronomical enlargement of wealth and
Monday, September 23, 2019
Business and Accounting Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Business and Accounting Ethics - Essay Example The main purpose of business ethics is to maintain a code of conduct which reinforces consumer confidence in the business. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has put down ethical guidelines for accounting. The AICPA's first principle of professional conduct states: "In carrying out their responsibilities as professionals, members should exercise sensitive professional and moral judgments in all their activities." The Golden Rule is this that one should live their life with integrity and bearing a sound moral character. Success cannot be measured by the acquisition of money only. A 1987 survey of corporate executives administered by Touche Ross revealed that two thirds believed that high ethical standards improve a firm's competitive position but felt that "increased concentration on short-term earnings" and "decay in cultural and social institutions" are major threats to business ethics. [1] Ethics must be the cornerstone of every business. This applies to my real estate and loan brokerage businesses aptly. The article stresses on transparency and pursuing good moral values in order to earn long term benefits. Ethics is also essential in building trust and confidence in the public for your business. Real Estate businesses have to do with direct interaction with the customers. Ethics is especially relevant here.
Sunday, September 22, 2019
Conceptualizing Addiction Paper Essay Example for Free
Conceptualizing Addiction Paper Essay The history of addiction goes back centuries, and unfortunately, there is still a long way to go for people to realize the effects of chemical substances do more harm than good. The difference between drug use and abuse relies heavily on a personââ¬â¢s dependence on the substance. The line between the differences is often very fine. Depending on other factors involved, such as morals, values, environment, and genetic predisposition, the line will most likely be crossed without regard to the consequences until treatment and recovery are the only options left. This is essay compares two theoretical explanations for addiction, including a psychological theory, and a biological theory. In addition, the writer will describe the viewpoints of each model, and how their effectiveness in addiction prevention and intervention. The Psychological Model The psychological model includes cognitive behavioral theories, psychodynamic theories, and the learning theory. Cognitive-behavioral theories associate a personââ¬â¢s motivation for taking drugs with their need for variety (McNeece DiNitto, 2012). People often look for fulfillment and pleasure as they carry out their day-to-day responsibilities, thus finding chemical substances a way to escape reality or a reward. Psychodynamic theories suggest more complex explanations are the reason behind drug addiction. Childhood experiences and structure within the family determine a personââ¬â¢s ability to cope socially and emotionally. Thus, the person uses drugs to forget about the pain or provide a false sense of security. Finally, the learning theory of addiction implies that people learn over time and exposure to drugs that anxiety, tension, and stress all decrease with use, becoming a reinforcer for the user (McNeece DiNitto, 2012). Eachà of theories explain addiction in terms of a malfunctioning thought process or learning process that can be reversed. For less severe cases of addiction, this type of treatment is effective. However, usually, a multi-treatment approach is necessary. Psychological models focus on the emotion and the mind, while biological models, as discussed next, find that addictive behaviors depend on the structure and chemistry in the bodyââ¬â¢s genetic makeup. The Biological Model ââ¬Å"The statistical associations between genetic factors and alcohol abuse are very strongâ⬠(McNeece DiNitto, 2012). However, there is still much debate over the validity of genetics as a definite cause for addiction. Perhaps, the reason for this is because the number of children of alcoholics that go on to become alcoholics is still small. Additionally, genetic predisposition cannot explain the number of cases of alcoholics that did not come from alcoholic parents or families. In fact, addiction can be so prominent, that it remains even after the drug use has ended (McNeece DiNitto, 2012). Therefore, the biological theory should not be ruled as it is based on what takes place in the body. There is no other theory that can explain how a person could still have addiction symptoms when the substance is absent from their system. Predisposition implies that there is a mutation or malfunction in the body that appears to cause a craving or susceptibility to becoming addicted to a substance. Comparing Psychological and Biological Models Both of the psychological and biological models explain addiction. In addition, both models take a holistic approach in their arguments. They simply emphasize a certain portion of the body and based their studies around that. Interestingly, the theories related to the psychological model are all insightful to how humans think and interact, however, they do not explain well the interactions that take place once a substance takes over quite like the biological model. Finally, the main shortcoming of the psychological model of addiction is the treatment approaches, which attempt to retrain a personââ¬â¢s thinking. Since biologists have proved there are specific genetic components of addiction that are naturally either present or absent, causing a mutation, a simple change of thought will not be enoughà to cure addiction in most cases. Treatment for Addiction Prevention and Intervention Out of the two models, the biological model has impressive supporting evidence regarding treatment for addiction. Perhaps, this is because of the perspective of how addiction affects people. It is easier to find a solution to a problem that is explained with support, rather than common thought patterns shared between people. Addiction may have specific characteristics that users share, but ultimately, it will affect everyone differently and many factors will be involved. Problems associated with drug abuse affect areas such as the digestive, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems, which is another advantage of biological treatment. Biologists study these systems and there functions and how addiction affects them. Thus, allowing them to incorporate treatment techniques that specialize in minimizing the effects of addiction while restoring the bodyââ¬â¢s systems. The duration, extent, and resiliency of the person still plays a vital role in the recovery and treatment process. Conclusion The history of addiction continues to stir controversy as to how it starts, who it affects, and why. While many choose to use chemical substances to get variety out of life, there are several that become addicted who cannot even give an answer as to why they continue to use. This is a sign of chemical dependency and typically means that the body and mind have now been altered in such a way that there will be adverse effects if and when a person chooses to stop using. Often, the decision to stop using is not voluntary. For many, there is not a realization that there is even a problem. There are just as many models that explain addiction as there are reasons that people become addicted. This essay explored the psychological and biological models of addiction. The psychological model deals with the mind and emotions, suggesting that people learn and adapt to certain behaviors over time. The biological model explains addiction as being present in all of us prior to being born, depending on the genetic predisposition and mutations. Arguably, no theory is better than another at explaining addiction. However, there is substantial evidence that supportsà the biological model and its treatment when dealing with people with addictions. Reference McNeece, C.A., DiNitto, D.M. (2012). Chemical Dependency: A systems approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Saturday, September 21, 2019
All Quiet on the Western Front Essay Example for Free
All Quiet on the Western Front Essay Lost Generation ââ¬â (young boys leaving school and going to war for their country) (Page 85) ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢Thatââ¬â¢s what set us apart and made our parentsââ¬â¢ world a little difficult for us to understand; because somehow we were always gently bound up with that world, submissive to it all, and the smallest thing led us onwards along the path of eternity. Perhaps it was just the privilege of our youth ââ¬â we were not yet able to see any restrictions, and we could not admit to ourselves that things would ever come to an end; expectation was in our blood, and this meant that we were at one with our lives as the days went by. ââ¬â¢ (Page 85) ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢Now we would wander around like strangers in those landscapes of our youth. We have been consumed in the fires of reality, we perceive differences only in the way tradesmen do, and we see necessities like butchers. We are free of care no longer ââ¬â we are terrifying indifferent. We might be present in that world, but would we be alive in it? We are like children who have been abandoned and we are as experienced as old men, we are coarse, unhappy and superficial ââ¬â I think that we are lost. ââ¬â¢Ã¢â¬â¢ (Wikipedia) Almost to a man, the young men are moved to join the army. The young enlistees are shown in basic training, aching for action fighting in the war. -Soldiers are referred to ââ¬Ëyoung soldiersââ¬â¢ all the time, because young men, almost boys even, are sent to war. They leave school and are sent to fight for their country. (Internet) ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢Arriving in training camp, the young boys expect war to be a great larkââ¬â¢Ã¢â¬â¢ * The boys were so young and unaware, they didnââ¬â¢t know what to expect from the war, but they thought it was going to be great fun and were very unaware of anything that was going to happen. They were happy to be going away, fighting for their country, they thought they were becoming men by doing this. (Internet) ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢each young and impressionable, are recruited and trained to fight for the glory of the fatherland. ââ¬â¢Ã¢â¬â¢ (-George McGovern) ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢Im fed up to the ears with old men dreaming up wars for young men to die in. ââ¬â¢Ã¢â¬â¢ Peer pressure. Some young boys donââ¬â¢t want to go to war but because all of their friends are going they get persuaded by peer ressure and by teachers, that fighting for their country would be a great duty and if they didnââ¬â¢t, they would be seen as a coward in their hometown. (Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet On The Western Front, Ch. 1) Yes, thats the way they think, these hundred thousand Kantoreks! Iron Youth! Youth! We are none of us more than twenty years old. But young? That is long ago. We are old folk. (Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet On The Western Front, Ch. 10)I am young, I am twenty years old; yet I know nothing of life but despair, death, fear, and fatuous superficiality cast over an abyss of sorrow. I see how peoples are set against one another, and in silence, unknowingly, foolishly, obediently, innocently slay one another. (Book)ââ¬Ëââ¬â¢When we went to the District Commandant to enlist, we were a class of twenty young men, many of whom proudly shaved for the first time before going to the barracks. We had no definite plans for our future. Our thoughts for a career and occupation were as yet of too unpractical a character to furnish any scheme of life. We were still crammed with vague ideas which gave to life, and to the war also, an ideal and almost romantic character. ââ¬â¢Ã¢â¬â¢
Friday, September 20, 2019
The Gender Division Of Labour Sociology Essay
The Gender Division Of Labour Sociology Essay Functionalists put forward a structuralist view of the family and within that context, how they understand conjugal roles. Parson believed the gender division of labour was natural and desirable. He also suggested that men and women had biologically determined personality types. Parson suggested that the roles carried out by women were not inferior, just different. They complimented the role carried out by men. He believed that women were more expressive then men and children were best socialised when they live in a warm, caring environment. The expressive female was also essential to stabilise the adult male personality by meeting his emotional and sexual needs. As a result, the family benefits when women stay at home. Also, men are better at providing for their family because they have instrumental personalities. He also stated that in the industrial society, isolated nuclear families have become more dominant. These families have become isolated from their extended families becaus e of commitments such as work demands. The conjugal pair therefore looked to each other to provide for their needs. In recent years, Parsons view has been supported by a number of groups, including New Right Conservation. They believed traditional, segregated conjugal roles were best for the family and wider society. However, to their concern, they believe they have been threatened by family diversity and the changing roles and expectations of women, resulting in a number of social problems such as underachievement and delinquency. Therefore, suggesting that they see the family as a structure that influences the development and attitudes of its members. Looking at Young and Willmotts analysis of the symmetrical family, they suggest that families today are more equal than before and have moved from segregated conjugal roles. This movement was through the result of a march of progress. There are several reasons for this. The first is that women are in paid employment, giving them financial independence and leading to greater sharing of power and status within the family. Unlike before, there are also changing expectations of husbands and family life. Also, there is a change in the size of families today, which are smaller. This may be due to changes in lifestyle, contraception and abortion. With the loss of the extended family this meant that the conjugal couple depended on each other practically and emotionally, both contributing to the duties within the home and sharing decisions. As a result, marriage today is becoming an equal partnership. Gershuny supports the view of Young and Willmott, that there is a greater equality. The foundation of his work over the past three decades is through the use of time use diaries. Gershuny sustains that the division of labour remains unfair, not because of the work itself, but because of its relationship to longer-term power structures within a society. (The Guardian, 2008). Although there is some progress towards greater sharing, it is very slow. He suggested that it may take a generation for men to make an equal contribution, describing this as lagged adaptation. Post Modernists argue that the world is no longer predictable. Society has entered a postmodern phase where there is no dominant family type and where individuals have the opportunity to create family relationships that are more suitable for them. Families are much more diverse today. In todays society, home life is much better than it used to be. There are also an increased number of appliances in the home, making home life more desirable and more men are willing to stay at home and help with household duties and childcare. This is similar to Young and Willmotts view on changing gender identities, describing men as New Men, helping to emphasis a change in attitudes. Also, some women are content with staying at home, taking on parenting and housework duties. In short, Young and Willmotts and others have argued that while conjugal roles are not completely equal they have become more equal. However, Feminists have criticised Parsons image of society that too much emphasis is laid upon how social control within families can reduce the potential for underachievement and delinquency. Also, there is no evidence of the biologically expressive female. Critics of Young and Willmott suggest there is insufficient sociological evidence to clearly support their argument. Most evidence suggests considerable inequality, especially where women are in paid employment. Feminists argue that the gender division of labour is culturally created and that there is insufficient evidence that conjugal roles have become more shared. They portray that the division of labour works to the advantage of men, leaving women in a position of inferiority in both power and work. Feminists believe the family is patriarchal because women must do housework without pay, which exploits and oppresses women because they are socialised to be dependent on men. According to Ann Oakleys (1974) research, women still felt that housework and childcare was their responsibility, even when they are in paid employment they still take on the responsibility of childcare and housework, this is known as the triple shift. This also contradicts the argument of Young and Willmott that as more women take paid employment outside of the home men increasingly share the housework and childcare. They also disagree with the new rights view of separate roles and they disagree with the march of progr ess view, stating that society has not changed and it is still unequal. Feminists also reject the theory that there is one best family type, they embrace freedom and diversity. They also see the traditional nuclear family as the main reason for womens oppression, suggesting that family ideology makes problems such as domestic violence worse, as women believe they should stand by their man no matter what the outcome is. These women may blame themselves for being bad wives and see themselves as deserving to be punished. Feminists reject Parsons view that women were biologically determined and believe they are socially constructed. They blame the media for this construction of women, often portraying them as housewives, cleaners, domestic servants offering comfort and support for men and presenting them as a mans sex object to tend to his sexual needs, suggesting that these roles are natural and normal. This is therefore seen as an example of patriarchal ideology. Marxist feminists believe that female workers are taken advantage of at a higher level than males as they are seen as a source of unpaid domestic labour, benefiting capitalism. Interactionism criticise both functionalists and feminists because both assume that social structure determines gender roles. Functionalists believe that family meets the needs of the individual and the family and Feminists believe that family maintains patriarchy. Interactionism has a more micro theory focusing on relationships between individuals and outcomes rather than roles, including things like social class, ethnic, lesbian and gay differences. In short, there is little evidence of sharing of power and the cultural dominance of men over women persists. Critics say that women have hidden powers controlling the home and have sexual power. They also say that feminism has led to greater opportunities for women in education and the workplace and cultural change in female ambitions. Based on the above arguments and evidence, there remains considerable disagreement within Sociology over the dispute of conjugal roles. While Functionalists believe that roles are progressively equal in modern society, Feminists maintain that there is very little empirical evidence to support this. For them, there remains considerable inequality. However, Interactionists and Post Modernists are critical of both approaches for a presumptuous view of conjugal roles and for ignoring the diversity of family and household structures and outcomes.
Thursday, September 19, 2019
Use of Comparative Description in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay
Use of Comparative Description in The Bluest Eyeà à à Upon reading The Bluest Eye a second time, I noticed something about the nature of Morrison's prose. The term that I have heard to describe the book most frequently is beautiful. The first chapters strike me as both incredibly realistic, and unbelievably beautiful. The fact that Morrison can give a scene where Claudia is actually throwing up on herself a rosy colored, nostalgic tint, and still manage to convey a sense of realism is a testament to Morrison's skill with words. The language certainly is beautiful, a sort of sensual prose, almost bordering on poetry. I also believe that the style of Morrison's descriptions is a key to understanding the major underlying theme of the novel, which is the association of rac...
Wednesday, September 18, 2019
Nanotechnology :: Science Scientific Nanotechnology Papers
Nanotechnology Before I can really address this topic properly I have to answer ââ¬Å"What is Nanotechnology and why the hype?â⬠Currently the term nano has been thrown around a lot in recent years. Mostly this is the desire of researchers to grab the research money that is out there and using buzz words do help turn heads. Nanotechnology is a grab bag of different fields of science. It takes from condensed-matter physics, engineering, molecular biology and large swaths of chemistry. Even the government was convinced by the hype to create The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a multi-agency program intended to provide a big funding boost to nanoscience and engineering. But what constitutes nanotechnology research? Even scientists have a hard time with that question. "It depends on whom you ask," Stanford biophysicist Steven M. Block told at a symposium on nanotechnology. "Some folks apparently reserve the word to mean whatever it is they do as opposed to whatever it is anyone else does." But what most scientists seem to agree on is what is considered Nanotechnology. Which is the future manufacture of molecular size materials, devices and possible machines. On the other hand many leading scientist that are pushing for the development of nanotechnology see it as molecular manufacturing or, more simply, building things one atom or molecule at a time with programmed nanoscopic robotarms. The reason we have this great interest in using nanostructures stems comes from the idea that superior electrical, chemical, mechanical or optical properties may be achieved at these smaller scales. Also biological and medicine research in the nanotechnology area is on its way. One company, Quantum Dot Corporation, has already has been doing research in semiconductor quantum dots as labels in biological experiments, drug-discovery research, and diagnostic tests, among other applications. Nano is receiving enthusiastic scrutiny from some big companies in the Standard & Poor's 500-stock index. Led by IBM, Lucent Technologies, and Hewlett-Packard, along with Samsung and Siemens , big industrial companies are pumping significant sums into nanotech research, as are governments around the world. Buckyballs--those soccer-ball-shaped carbon molecules discovered in 1985 by a team led by Rice University's Richard E. Smalley--are roughly 1 nm in diameter. Carbon nanotubes are about 1.4 nm thick. The latest entrants: slightly fatter nanotube-like wires made from silicon, gallium nitride, and other semiconducting materials. These nanotubes are showing some of the most potential for use in both research and applications ranging from computers to ultra high strength cables.
Tuesday, September 17, 2019
Carnegie, the Selfish Philanthropist
Andrew Carnegie, The Selfish Philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, born on November 25, 1835, was a Scottish philanthropist who was one of the richest men in America in the 1900's. I completely agree with Carnegie's opinion of how the rich should donate their money toward the good of mankind before they die, but disagree with his actions toward his workers . He started working in a cotton mill making $1. 20 a week only to upgrade to $2. 20 working as a messenger boy. He eventually taught himself telegraphy and worked as Thomas A. Scott's assistant for $35 a month.He moved on to investing, with the help from his ââ¬Å"mentorâ⬠Scott, in the Woodruff Sleeping Car Company and several small iron mills and factories. He was so successful that he was able to buy an industry of iron products. This investment brought him to buy a piece of land and build a steel manufacturing factory on it. With the millions he made, he visited Scotland often to see his family. Carnegie thought it was a good idea to put most of the money that he made back into the community. He gave his money away through public programs, which was a little overwhelming for him it seems.He cut the wages of his workers to provide more money for him to put back into his programs. There was a strike that broke out which caused his second in command to hire immigrants. This changed Carnegie's reputation. It also influenced him to retire and sell all of his holdings to J. P. Morgan for a sum of 480 Million dollars. Over the course of the rest of his lifetime, he ended up giving away 350 million dollars. He encouraged other fortune holders to do the same as him. John D. Rockefeller was one of the few that followed his Idea. Carnegie had great intentions.Carnegie believed that ââ¬Å"a man who dies rich dies disgraced. â⬠He explains this as the wealthy who die wealthy , did nothing with their wealth to better mankind. His thinking was influenced by Herbert Spencer, who was a social Darwinist. Carnegie ag reed with Spencer's ââ¬Å"survival of the fittestâ⬠belief. He felt that there existed superior people who would be classified as ââ¬Å"fittestâ⬠(this included himself). Carnegie mainly donated money to his interests in the community. His love for learning was something that fed his ââ¬Å"charitable mind. â⬠He funded the building of 2,509 libraries before he ended this program in 1917.His interest in music is what gave him the idea to donate pipe organs to churches despite his lack of faith in a religion. The establishment of the Carnegie Foundation was something founded by Carnegie, to continue to give after his passing, after finding out that he would not be able to spend his fortune in his lifetime. Some examples of people that agree with Carnegie would be Bill Gates and Warren Buffet. Bill Gates and Warren buffet created ââ¬Å"The Giving Pledgeâ⬠which was an agreement among 57 billionaires to donate half of their fortunes during their lifetimes.Their t houghts were intertwined with Carnegie's thoughts of giving back to the community and improving the quality of life for human beings. An example of someone that disagrees with Carnegie would be Teddy Roosevelt. Teddy Roosevelt-ââ¬Å"if Carnegie had employed his fortune and his time to doing justice to the steelworkers who gave him his fortune, he would have accomplished a thousand times what he accomplished. â⬠Roosevelt is referring to Carnegie giving to the good of mankind, while at the same time hurting his own workers by undermining them with less pay.If someone like Carnegie wanted to help the community and make life better for mankind, he should start with his own company. I agree and disagree with Carnegie. I agree that the rich should devote some of their riches toward the benefits of mankind before they die/as they live their life, but agree with Roosevelt's argument toward Carnegie's ruthless strategies of cutting his own workers pay just to put more money toward his ââ¬Å"givingâ⬠. The reason that the wealthy should put some of their wealth back into the community is because that is where they made their money.Without other people to buy, sell, or trade, where would the wealthy get their wealth? This also prevents the family member or the heirs of the inheritance to be spoiled. Carnegie had a great point for doing this. For some strange reason, Carnegie cut the wages of his steel workers while at the same time putting money toward public programs that would benefit mankind. He even stated that he could put more use of that money than the workers ever could, which is ridiculously egotistical and rude. By not giving his workers a fair wage, he was hurting the economy. Our economy is based off of consumers spending their money.In my honest opinion, I think Carnegie is a selfish attention seeking mastermind. He seems very sensitive to what other people think of him. Don't get me wrong, he sounds like a nice, caring, and independent man. His intentions though, are outweighed by the means and basis for his profit: unfair and underpaid labor. The money that he made from his steel factory was ironically against his ââ¬Å"givingâ⬠attitude that he was trying to generate. I think that after he realized that he would never have to worry about his financial situation ever again, he focused on becoming a public figure and cared about the public opinion of himself.An example to prove this would be how he reacted to the steel strikes. While he was visiting Scotland, his next in command (Henry Clay Frick) replaced all of the strikers with immigrants. This action is said to have caused the death of 10 men. Carnegie took the blame and lost positive reputation. He later retired by selling all of his assets (Probably to further the steel factory from being associated to his name) and continued to give his money away to recover from his lost reputation. (This is what I think anyway). Carnegie had the right idea to donate his mone y to a better cause, but used the wrong means to get there.I agreed with his method, but not his means. Works Cited: 1 . â⬠Andrew Carnegie. â⬠2012. Biography. com 24 Oct 2012, 12:51http://www. biography. com/people/andrew-carnegie-9238756 2. Mills, Harry. ââ¬Å"Andrew Carnegie: Master deal maker and robber baron. â⬠à The Naked Negotiator. The Mills Group, 24 2009. Web. 24 Oct 2012. ;http://blog. millsonline. com/2009/08/24/andrew-carnegie-master-deal-maker-and-robber-baron/;. 3. . ââ¬Å"Spreading gospels of wealth. â⬠à The Economist. SANTA BARBARA | from the print edition | United States, 19 2012. Web. 24 Oct 2012. ;http://www. economist. com/node/21555605;.
Monday, September 16, 2019
Synthetic vs. Natural: an Analysis of Costuming in Blade Runner
Ben Boudreau Professor Butorac English 151 10 May 2010 Synthetic vs. Natural: An Analysis of Costuming Used in Blade Runner Blade Runner written by Scott Bukatman and published in 1997 discusses the making of, and larger issues addressed, in Ridley Scottââ¬â¢s film Blade Runner (1982). Bukatman, an Associate Professor of Film and Media Studies at Stanford University, has written several books on film. His book takes a look at the film formally, ideologically, and even historically. He addresses the film formally by talking about the production of the film. He briefly discusses the process of refining the filmââ¬â¢s script which is loosely based on the book Do Androids dream of Electric Sheep? by Philip K. Dick. Bukatman talks of Blade Runnerââ¬â¢s design, touching on the narration, the production of the props and set, special effects, and cinematography of the film. In his ideological analysis of the film he touches on larger social issues in the film such as urbanization, immigration, racism, and post modernism. On age 19 Bukatman says ââ¬Å"With its city that resembles nothing so much as a vast boundless refinery and its world that no longer contains any traces of natureâ⬠This discussion of the set and props hint at the problems of urbanization as shown in the film. Bukatman uses the androids as examples for how the film can be viewed as addressing racism and immigration. The paranoia against the androids could represent the racism against Asians which was growing at that time in American history due to Asianââ¬â¢s expanding economic influence (Bukatman 74). Racism against blacks is shown by the androids classification of non-human because during the time of slavery in America, blacks were also not viewed as human (Bukatman 75). One way post-modernism is addressed, according to Bukatman, is by begging the question what does it mean to be human? This question is a major theme throughout Bukatmanââ¬â¢s book. In this paper I will discuss the issues of the environment and industrialization. I plan on doing this through the use of costuming in the film. I will analyze the use of synthetic versus natural costuming. This paper will cover the wardrobes worn by Rick Deckard, Pris, and Rachael. Rick Deckard, played by Harrison Ford, is the protagonist in Scottââ¬â¢s Blade Runner. Known as a ââ¬Å"blade runnerâ⬠, Deckard is a member of the Los Angeles police department who is employed to ââ¬Å"retireâ⬠genetically designed humanoids known as ââ¬Å"replicantsâ⬠. These replicants were designed by the Tyrell Corporation to do work in off-world colonies. Because of their superior strength and comparable intelligence, the replicants were viewed as a threat to the human race. After a bloody uprising on an off-world colony they were deemed illegal on earth. In response, Rick Deckard and his group of blade runners are put in place to hunt down and retire these humanoids. Deckard lives in futuristic Los Angeles set in 2019. The city described by Bukatman is a ââ¬Å"vast, boundless refinery,â⬠which ââ¬Å"no longer contains any trace of natureâ⬠(19). Deckardââ¬â¢s costuming throughout the film differs greatly from the rest of the characters. He wears a large brown sport coat with patch pockets for most of the film. The coatââ¬â¢s color is very earthy and natural looking in comparison to other charactersââ¬â¢ costumes. It looks unpressed and wrinkled as if nothing has been done to modify its look. Underneath he wears several different dress shirts all with basic patterns and muted colors, along with a plaid styled tie. His pants appear to be dark gray, possibly flannel but nothing remarkable. It is almost as if Deckard is your typical working class male found on any large cityââ¬â¢s street during the 1980ââ¬â¢s. I believe he can be viewed as representing the past, a time where a natural environment existed and urban landscape did not completely dominate the planet. By dressing the filmââ¬â¢s ââ¬Å"good guyâ⬠in natural and earthy attire I believe Scott could be voicing his opposition to urbanization and the destruction of the natural environment. In the beginning of the film you learn that a group of Nexus 6 replicants have escaped from an off-world colony and traveled to earth illegally. They have come to earth in hope that their creator, Tyrell, can extend their short life spans of only four years. These Nexus 6 replicants, which are said to be ââ¬Å"more human than humanâ⬠, were designed with superior strength and agility for use on the off-world colonies. One of the escapees is known as Pris. Born on Valentineââ¬â¢s day, Pris is a ââ¬Å"basic pleasure modelâ⬠. She is also the girlfriend of the strongest replicant, Roy Batty. In the film, we follow Pris as she befriends the genetic engineer, J. F. Sebastian, so Roy can get closer to Tyrell, their creator. Throughout this film we see Pris in very unique costuming. We first see Pris wandering the crowded streets alone in the rain, dressed as a classic street prostitute. Her hair is frizzy and blonde, looking as if it has been bleached. Around her neck she wears a metal dog collar. A black shirt barely covers her up, and her black nylon tights clearly show her upper thighs. Faint traces of mascara make her eyes appear dark. Anticipating J. F. s route home, she hides outside his apartment disguised under newspapers. J. F. gets off the bus and runs into Pris, not being able to resist the company of a gorgeous girl in his lonely apartment, J. F. invites her in. She spends the night there and quickly becomes ââ¬Å"friendlyâ⬠with him. The next morning Pris goes through a transformation. She wanders his apartment looking through the endless amount of toys a nd mannequins. She begins playing with his make-ups, and cakes her face with clownish white powder. Next, she closes her eyes to spray them with a black jar of spray paint. This make-up on her face gives her a ââ¬Å"created lookâ⬠. She appears completely unnatural at this point, and begins to resemble the toys found in J. F. ââ¬â¢s apartment. She uses this ability of looking fake to her advantage when she encounters Deckard in the end of the film. In this scene we see Pris posing completely lifeless among the toys. Her only disguise is a long white veil. She transforms visually into a kind of ghostly bridal doll. In this film, Pris is the polar opposite of Deckard. She wears dark synthetic clothes that appear to be unnatural and fake. Her make-up gives her the appearance of a lifeless toy mannequin. Deckard eventually spots the replicant and a fight ensues. Deckard shoots Pris twice and retires her. I believe the killing of Pris by Deckard gives us another possible example for urbanization and the environment. Pris can be read as one of the evils in this film. Being a replicant, she represents the future, where there is no evidence of nature and the cluttered city dominates the entire landscape. If you look at her costuming, it is very artificial and synthetic looking. Deckard, on the other hand, is dressed naturally and earthy. His killing of Pris could give some evidence of Scottââ¬â¢s opposition to urbanization and the future of the environment. One of the most interesting characters in Blade Runner is Rachael. She is the latest experiment of Tyrell, designed because of the flaws of the Nexus 6 models. Tyrell believes that the replicants have started to develop their own emotions. He believes this is due to the fact that they have no framework within which to deal with the formation of new emotions. Tyrell implants memories of his niece into Rachael and also does not reveal to her, until later, that she is a replicant. Rachael figures it out after she is given a Voight-Kampff test. She leaves Tyrell and in desperation turns to Deckard, who is under orders to kill her. Deckard ends up falling in love with her and spares her life. In the film, we see two different types of costuming for Rachael. In the beginning when Deckard meets Rachael in Tyrellââ¬â¢s pyramid throne, we see a tall, dark, statuesque woman. With broad squared shoulders, exaggerated proportions, straight lines, and lacquered hair she appears to be flawless. She looks to as if she is mechanical, fulfilling her role as a replicant. Later in the movie she goes through a gradual transformation. At this point of the film she is sitting at the piano in Deckardââ¬â¢s apartment. Rachael is wearing a more feminine dress that paints broad stripes of tan and cream across her body. As she lets her hair down, we see her change from the artificial hair she wore previously to a bushy and more natural style. We also see Rachael as she transforms from a pale white face with bright red lips to a more tan and feminine face with little or no lip stick. I believe that the transformation of Rachael can be viewed as representing hope. Rachael stands for the future. She is portrayed in the beginning as being very unnatural but through her transformation she becomes more natural looking like Deckard. This could be Scott showing us that there is hope for the future, and that the future can be a place where nature exists. This pinning of good versus evil, natural versus synthetic, is just one of the many ways the costuming of Blade Runner can be read. In Ridley Scottââ¬â¢s films, the messages or issues addressed by the film are very subtle. They will never come out and hit you in the face. You often have to watch his films several times and really think about the film after you have viewed it to really understand what he is trying to say. This is what makes Scottââ¬â¢s films so great. His films will provoke thought and stay relevant and important to the film industry like few other films can. Even authors such as Scott Bukatman missed what this particular use of synthetic and natural fibers could be saying. Although this message about urbanization and the environment is hidden and could be read a number of different ways, I do believe Scott might be voicing his opposition to urbanization and the destruction of the natural world. Works Cited Blade Runner. Dir. Ridley Scott. Perf. Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young. Warner Brothers, 1982. Film. Bukatman, Scott. Blade Runner. London: British Film Institute, 1997. Print.
Sunday, September 15, 2019
French Revolution of 1789 Was a Major Cause of the Haitian Revolution of 1791
The French Revolution of 1789 led to the development and insertion of new political forces such as democracy and nationalism which was inspired by the Enlightenment of the mid-eighteenth century. It questioned the authority of the King, priests, nobles and religion on a whole; namely Catholicism. The revolution gave new meaning to the political ideas of the people. Franceââ¬â¢s involvement in the American Revolution had left the country in a massive financial crisis.Debt, inflation a lack of food and King Louis XVI lavish spending and heavy taxation on the Commons of society served to anger the people and so they demanded a new system of government. The Old Regime and Social Stratification in France Under the system of the Old Regime the King was seen in society as being the absolute monarch whose rule was ordained my God. The King had centralized power in the Royal Bureaucracy. In unison the King and the bureaucracy preserved royal authority and maintained a system of social stra tification stipulated by the Old Regime.The society in France was legally stratified by birth, divided into three Estates. The First Estate consisting of the clergy, the Second Estate; the nobility and the Third Estate the Commons which consisted of the bourgeoisie, city workers and peasants. The First Estate, the clergy which was also made up of members from the nobility enjoyed various privileges which were unavailable to those below their station in society. They paid no taxes and to support activities of the church collected tithes or taxes on income. The Second Estate, the nobility hardly paid taxes despite their great wealth.Their source of income came from rents and dues collected from the use of their farms and estates. The Third Estate resented the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility. They were forced to pay taxes, tithes to the church and rent and dues to landlords for the land they occupied. This served to cause an upset in the society as it prevented the common s from entering into upward social mobility which was primarily based on the order in which one was born. Due to these occurrences the Commons wanted to have some form of equality in the French society. Thus they were in constant negotiation with the Crown for better and more privileges.The Estates-General (1789) As a result of King Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting on Estates-General on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. This was the place where representatives from each social Estate could be represented and their grievances voiced. Social tension plaguing the Old Regime was the central grievance of those representing the Third Estate. Because the First and Second Estates were primarily made up of citizens of the nobility they were allowed to override the Third Estates as they contained two out of the three votes available. As a result the Third Estate was left voiceless.The Third Estate offered a vision that privilege in society was to be determined by usefulness rather than birth. Writers of the Enlightenment; Voltaire, Montesquies and Rousseau served to be an encouraging factor to those seeking equality in society as they viewed these privileges enjoyed by the nobility as being rooted in tradition. As a result the Third Estate invited the other estates to join a new legislature. They eventually renamed themselves the National Assembly which was based on the people rather than Estates. By doing this they revealed their intention of becoming the official legislative body of France.In the summer of 1789the National Constituent Assembly declared itself the full authority of the nation. This led to the abolition of feudalism and the system of privileges under the Old Regime. Figure 1. The Estates-General inFrance The Role of the Enlightenment The Enlightenment of the mid-eighteenth century was a philosophical movement that proposed that talent replaced birth as the main determinant of ones social standing. They believed that methods applied to studying the natura l science could be used to correct the problems of society. Advocates of this movement concerned themselves with ââ¬Ëreasonââ¬â¢ and ââ¬Ëlibertyââ¬â¢.The Enlightenment caused people to consider the view that knowledge could only be acquired through careful study and ones reasoning abilities. In order for this to be achieved religious ideology and traditional beliefs had to be forsaken. Thus they encouraged the concept of liberty which they defined as being freedom from religion, press and unreasonable government. These ideas not only inspired the Commons in France but also the politicians and Heads of State. This was what eventually inspired French revolutionaries to construct a declaration that would serve to mold a society based on reason rather than tradition.The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) This Declaration insisted on the freedom and equality of man and gave birth to the revolutionary triad; ââ¬ËLiberty, Equality and Fraternityââ¬â¢ . Pu t in place by the National Constituent Assembly; was encouraged by the philosophical and political ideas of the Enlightenment. The declaration puts in place the ideology of Natural rather than religious doctrine and authority. The rights of man were to be secured and recognized by a government of elected representatives. This therefore meant an ending to privilege and feudalism; and equality in France.Clergy, nobles, judges and even ordinary tax payers lost whatever special standing they once had. Each person was now seen as being ââ¬Ëidenticalââ¬â¢ before the law. Figure 2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Ciizen Saint Domingue prior to French Revolution The society in St. Domingue was a replica of the society in France plagued by the Old Regime of social stratification in France. This was introduced to the colony as the Royalist/Metropolitan Whites brought with them to the colony the traditions held by the Old Regime. Conflict between each social group was based on r ace and the acquisition of capital.Tensions between the Whites, Mulattoes and Blacks and more specifically within the white society; tension between the Royalists, Grand and Petite Blancs was plaguing the society in St. Domingue. This segregation within the colony can later be credited as one of the contributing factors of the revolution in 1791, as the French Revolution of 1789 left each group seeking equal rights and privileges within society Social Stratification in St. Domingue The Metropolitan Whites/ Royalists: These were whites who came directly from France to St.Domingue as members of the bureaucracy whose purpose was to see to the Governance of the colony. They enjoyed the commercial privileges of the French bourgeoisie and brought with them to the colony the traditions held by the Old Regime in France of absolutism of the monarchy and the ideology of feudalism. At the head of the bureaucracy was the Governor and Intendant. The Kingââ¬â¢s representative in the colony was the Governor who was a soldier and aristocrat. His duty in the colony was that of granting concession, being an agent for European merchandise in the colony and colonial merchandise in Europe.The Intendant in the colony had judicial responsibilities as well as seeing to the finance and general administration of the colony. The Metropolitans had extensive privileges and power in the colony that could not be enjoyed by whites below their station. The Grand Blancs: These were wealthy plantation owners, top civil and military officers of St. Domingue. Some of whom had aristocratic origins in France while others were known Creoles. Their ambition in the colony was to regain enough wealth to return to France despite the fact that they were the most prominent of social groups within the society.The Petite Blancs: These were the poor whites of St. Domingue; primarily shop keepers, book keepers and merchants. They were seen by other superior whites as being unproductive within the society, performing no important role within the economy of the colony. It was often thought that the Mulattoes and Blacks could carry out the tasks performed by Petite Blancs if they were to be deported. They were also excluded from privileges enjoyed by the Grand Blancs, however, because they were white it was easier for them to fit into the society. The Mulattoes/Affranchis: These were the children of white planters and slaves.They were exceptionally numerous within the society with the fate of their freedom resting in the hands of their white fathers. By the mid-eighteenth century their economic advances had began to overshadow members of the white society. A number of them participated in the purchase of land and slaves, they ran their own plantations and some were allowed the privilege of being educated in France. It is argued by historians David Barry Gasper and David Patrick Geggus, that the affranchise owned one third of the colonyââ¬â¢s plantations, one quarter of the slaves and one quarter of the real estate property.Slaves: The treatment of black slaves in St. Domingue was the worst endured by slaves of the West Indies. Planters had been making immense profits in the colony to the detriment of the slaves. They were worked excessively hard, harshly punished and poorly fed. Because of this every five years the slave population of St. Domingue had to be replenished as the colony held the highest death rate of blacks within the region. Racial Tension and Discrimination in St. Domingue Prior to 1791 The Metropolitan Whites/Royalists looked upon the Grand Blancs with arrogance and disdain despite their wealth and status in society.They too however, were also resented by the Grand Blancs as they thought the Royalists to be wasteful and extravagant. They also hated the fact that they could not hold civil service positions held by the Metropolitans which meant that they had no power over the running of the colony. Similarly the most notable tension between whites can be found between the Grand and Petite Blancs. Although they were of the same colour, the Grand Blancs resented the Petite Blancs as they thought them unproductive to the economy of the colony. Due to their status in society the Petite Blancs were not able to partake in privileges enjoyed by the Grand Blancs.Voting, for example within the colony was based on the amount of property one possessed, thus the Petite Blance were exclude from the administration due to lack of land. The economic advances of the Affranchise within St. Domingue was viewed by whites as being a dangerous trend that could eventually undermine the superiority of the white plantocracy. Thus it became increasingly important to both Colonial Whites and Royalists to enforce white superiority in St. Domingue by legislating against Mulatto equality with whites by repressing their political ambitions and placing them in degrading positions n society despite their wealth and education. This was done to ensure that th e Affranchise remembered their slave origins which made it impossible for them to be equal to whites. The Mulattoes were hated by the Blacks as they showed resentment for their genealogical ties to blacks and slavery. They tried very hard to imitate the lives of the whites and saw to drown out all traces of their origin. Thus the slaves hated them as well as the whites. Due to this the slaves were feared by both the Whites and the Mulattoes as they were vastly outnumbered. Impact of the French Revolution on St.Domingue The events of the revolution in St. Domingue can be credited to the influence of the French Revolution in 1789 as it was the factor which inspired the events in St. Domingue. All social classes in the colony were greatly affected by the French Revolution as the Grand and Petite Blancs, the Affranchise and the Slaves saw the events taking place in France as an opportunity to seize liberty and equality. The Grand Blancs saw the opportunity to secure independence in the colony from the restrictions of the Mother country retarding their economic growth.Thus liberty to the plantocracy meant the removal of Metropolitan controls over the affairs of the colony. For the Petite Blancs, the impact of the ideologies of the French Revolution meant social equality with the Grand Blancs and liberty meant ââ¬Ëactive citizenshipââ¬â¢ allowing them to vote freely without the acquisition of land standing in their way. For the Mulattoes in St. Domingue they thought that the revolution in France gave them the opportunity to demand civil and political rights which were denied to them because of their black origin.For the slaves equality and liberty reinforced their aspirations for personal freedom. The Revolt of the Grand Blancs The white planters in St. Domingue had began demanding political representation. The calling of the Estates-General in France in 1789 left them determined to get their interests and grievances voiced in France. Because of this the Grand Blancs supported the revolution taking place in France as for them it meant liberty from the shackles of the Mother country. For them the revolution meant freedom of trade and political control of St.Domingue at the expense of the Petite Blancs, Mulattoes and slaves. However without authority from the National Assembly, the Grand Blancs called elections in St. Domingue for a General Assembly in 1790. As a result the Petite Blancs were excluded from participating in the Assembly due to the lack of land they obtained; the Mulattoes were also excluded from partaking in the Assembly due to their lack of civil and political rights within the colony. Due to their newly found power the Grand Blancs had begun disregarding the authority of the Metropolitan whites and the National Assembly in France.Because of this the Royalist and Petite Blancs and to some extent the Mulattoes untied to crush the revolt of the planters as they preferred the Colonial ties with France and obedience to the Nat ional Assembly. Due to the defeat of their cause the Grand Blancs then turned their fury upon the Affranchise of the colony because of their role aiding the suppression of their revolt. The Revolt of the Affranchise Because of the occurrences of violence by the Grand Blancs against Mulattoes; questions concerning their civil rights and social equality were brought to the attention of the National Assembly.As such there was an attempt made to pacify the Mulattoes in the colony by allowing them equality with the Whites in the Militia. Thus in 1790 a decree was passed by the National Assembly granting voting rights and the right to hold office to all Mulatto ââ¬Ëpersonsââ¬â¢ owning property over the age of twenty five who met the income requirements stipulated. However, the decision to ensure the rights of these ââ¬Ëpersonsââ¬â¢ was left within the hands of the Grand Blancs who hated Mulattoes and refused to give them the right to vote.Because of this the Mulattoes were for ced to appeal to the Governor complaining that their rights were not being secured. The leader of the Mulattoes, Vincent Oge? threatened to use force if their demands were not met. Thus they encountered violent opposition from the colonial whites which eventually caused the movement to escalate into an armed revolt. Unfortunately the revolt was violently suppressed and leaders executed; however, as a result of the revolt a proposal was put forward by the Colonial Assembly that granted political rights to those born of legally free parents. The Revolt of the Slaves in 1791Figure 3. The revolt of the slaves The question of slavery in France was one of a complicated nature due to the fact that French commerce greatly depended on the production of their colonies which was facilitated by slavery. Thus revolution and resistance in St. Domingue became possible when slavery was challenged in France by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The colony was under the instruction of French laws yet these rights did not relate to the blacks. To the National Assembly the exploitation of slaves was a profitable business as such they had no intention of granting them freedom.The news of the French Revolution and its triad, ââ¬ËLiberty, Equality and Fraternityââ¬â¢ was dispersed throughout the colony and slave population via ships and their sailors as well as French revolutionaries who believed in the equality of all. The sailors spoke in excitement to blacks unloading and loading cargo into the ships of the events taking place in France. Upon hearing this, the slaves then realized that they had witnessed similar events that had occurred in the colony to what was happening in France in the name of liberty and equality.The Grand Blancs revolt against the Bureaucracy and in 1790 the revolt of the Mulattoes to the Grand Blancs. Thus upon hearing of the success of the French bourgeoisie the slaves took it as an example which would enable them to gain freedom from their masters. The first sign of unrest within the slaves occurred when they believed that their masters were withholding three free days that the King himself had given them. The first attempt of slaves to gain their free days originated in Port-Salut in the South province.Because the masters refused to comply, the slaves were forced to engage in a conspiracy which was aimed at ensuring their masters granting the rights the King had given them. The conspiracy was however discovered and ringleaders arrested. These occurrences signaled the beginning of the revolutionary struggle of the slaves in the South Province. The slaves of the North were also greatly affected by the occurrences in the South and thus prepared a massive revolt. Simultaneously slave gatherings in the West also appeared similar to the ones in Port-Salut.After a religious ceremony headed by voodoo priest Boukman the revolt aimed at liberty for the slaves began in the North Plain District of Acul in 1791.B I B L I O G R A P H Y Books Bayan, Patrick. ââ¬ËThe Haitian Revolution and its Effects. ââ¬â¢ Heingmann. 1998 Brians, Paul. ââ¬ËReading about the World: Volume 2ââ¬â¢. American Heritage Custom Publishing. 1998 Censer, Jack and Hunt, Lynn. ââ¬ËLiberty, Equality and Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolutionââ¬â¢. American Social History Production Inc. 2001 Gasper, David B. and Geggus, David P. A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbeanââ¬â¢. Indiana University Press. 1997 Greenwood, Robert and Hamber, Shirley. ââ¬ËEmancipation to Emigrationââ¬â¢ Macmillan Publishers Limited. 2003 James, C. L. R. ââ¬ËThe Black Jacobins: Toussaint Lââ¬â¢Overture and the San Domingo Revolutionââ¬â¢. Random House Inc. 1963 Websites Bromley, Jason. ââ¬ËResistance and the Haitian Revolutionââ¬â¢. scholar. library. miami. edu. 2008 Chavis, Jason. ââ¬ËThe Estate-General of 1789: Foundation of the French Revolutionââ¬â¢ french-history. suite. 101. com 2009
Saturday, September 14, 2019
International Culture
RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 129 Chapter 5 I NTERNATIONAL CULTURE Contents Objectives of the chapter Introduction 131 Places and people differ. The Japanese tend to be very polite, the Australians characteristically blunt. Red means ââ¬Å"dangerâ⬠or ââ¬Å"stopâ⬠to the British, but in Turkey it signifies death and in China, good fortune. In France getting into a grande ecole tends to guarantee good job prospects whereas in Saudi Arabia the wealth and status of your family is far more important. What is culture? 131 The importance of culture in different business contexts 133National stereotypes and key dimensions of culture 136 Cross-cultural management 144 Culture embodied in national institutions 151 à ¦ Active Learning Case Culture clash at Pharmacia and Upjohn 130 à ¦ International Business Strategy in Action McDonaldââ¬â¢s 135 Danone and Parmalatââ¬âgoing international, staying local 149 à ¦ Real Cases Do not throw your meishi! 154 Sport can be local and global: Manchester United 155 Patterns of global diversity and the implications of these differences have been studied from a range of perspectives, by sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and political scientists.Here we are concerned with how cultural diversity and related differences in the behavior, norms, and expectations of particular groups of employees, managers, colleagues, or customers affect management decision making and corporate organizations. After an introduction to the kinds of business contexts in which cultural differences do matter, this chapter will describe some typologies of national cultural differences and discuss the implications of these for international managers. The specific objectives of this chapter are to: 1 Define culture and explain the factors that underlie cultural differences. Show where and why cultural differences matter to international managers. 3 Explain a number of frameworks that help identify important cultural differences. 4 Examine how firms can anticipate and cope with cultural differences. RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 130 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Active Learning Case Culture clash at Pharmacia and Upjohn Despite being part of the same advanced, industrialized world, Kalamazoo (Michigan, United States), Stockholm (Sweden), and Milan (Italy) are worlds apart in many important ways. Senior managers leading the merger between two pharmaceutical firms, Upjohn Company of he United States and Pharmacia AB of Sweden (with operations in Italy), came to realize how significant these differences were after the merger took place in 1995. Swedes take off most of the month of July for their annual vacation, Italians take off most of August. Not knowing this, US executives scheduled meetings in the summer only to have to cancel many because their European counterparts were at the beach. As the more dominant US firm began to impose its way of doing things on the newly acquired Euro pean organizations, international relationships became increasingly strained. Neither the Swedes nor the Italians were happy with mpositions such as the drug and alcohol testing policy brought in by Upjohn, or the office smoking ban. These clashed with local ways of doing things and the more informal work environment that these cultures prefer. Although Upjohn later relaxed many of these work rules, allowing some local practices and preferences to prevail, ill-feeling and a degree of resistance had already developed among European colleagues. The additional bureaucracy and the command-andcontrol style imposed by the Americans created more significant problems for the 34,000 employees and managers in Pharmacia and Upjohn Company. The Swedes ere used to an open, team-based style of management where responsibilities are devolved; managers are trusted and not strictly monitored or closely managed. Swedish executives also tend to build up a consensus behind big decisions, ââ¬Å"getting everyone in the same boatâ⬠(alla aer i baten) rather than handing orders down the hierarchy. As a traditional US multinational, however, Upjohn was more used to strong leadership and a centralized command-andcontrol structure. Its CEO, Dr. John Zabriskie, quickly created a strict reporting system, tight budget control, and frequent staffing updates, which clashed with the Swedish rganization style. Swedish managers would leave meetings disgruntled, having been overruled by US executives keen to push their vision of the merged company. The Swedesââ¬â¢ own ways of doing things had already clashed with the Italian style of management, following the takeover of Farmitalia (part of Montedison) by Pharmacia in 1993. Italians are used to a distinctive division between workers (and their strong unions) and managers. Their 130 steeper hierarchies contrast the more egalitarian Swedes. Italians also place a high value on families and will leave ork to tend to sick relatives or help wi th childcare, which the Swedes frown upon. The addition of the Americans from Upjohn to this mix created further cultural confusion. Communication problems, beyond the obvious language differences, became a real barrier to honest dialogue. ââ¬Å"You go there thinking youââ¬â¢re going to streamline the place,â⬠said American Mark H. Corrigan, Pharmacia and Upjohn Vice President for Clinical Development, ââ¬Å"and you leave just having added five pounds from some wonderful meals. â⬠These differences, many of them small but important at the local level, quickly began to have an impact on the verall performance of the merged company. In the months and years following the merger unforeseen inefficiencies and added costs began to undermine the potential synergies of bringing together two such companies in the first place. At one level the problems amounted to things like canceled meetings, new organization demands (such as monthly report writing), and a general decline in staff morale. There were also unexpected difficulties integrating the IT systems across the various parts of the merged organization. These and other changes added an estimated $200 million to the predicted costs of the estructuring, taking the total cost to $800 million. Even more seriously, for a pharmaceutical company heavily reliant on its new drugs pipeline to survive, delayed product launches and the loss of key staff (including the head of R&D at Pharmacia) had a longer-term impact. ââ¬Å"There was probably an under-appreciation â⬠¦ of these cultural differences,â⬠says Art Atkinson, former Vice President for Clinical Research and Development. Particular problems resulted from the restructuring of the firmââ¬â¢s global R&D structure. Prior to the merger Upjohn owned well-known names such as Rogaine andMotrin and had annual sales of around $3. 5 billion, but had a weak new product pipeline and slow sales growth compared to its larger competitors. Similar-sized Pha rmacia had a more promising pipeline but weak distribution and sales in the US market, the worldââ¬â¢s largest. These amounted to a strong rationale for the merger. Together they could challenge the financial power and the larger R&D programs of their competitors. However, integrating and refocusing the various parts of the new R&D structure became a major problem. Rather than place the R&D headquarters in the United States, Sweden, or Milan, a ecision was made to establish a new and neutral Londonbased center for the R&D function. This simply added a RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 131 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE layer of management and a more complex matrix reporting structure, which further alienated key R&D personnel. In 1997, after the stock price of the merged corporation had fallen significantly, CEO John Zabriskie resigned. Swede Jan Ekberg, the former head of Pharmacia, took over temporarily and began to rebuild aspects of the merged organization. After acquiring a major part of Monsanto in 2000, Pharmacia and Upjohn became Pharmacia, which was hen itself acquired by the US giant Pfizer in April 2003. This made Pfizer, according to its own Annual Report, the ââ¬Å"number one pharmaceutical company in every region of the World. â⬠11 All this proves is that going global is hard work. Not all of these problems could have been foreseen, but a real lack of awareness of cultural differences did lead to many of the organization difficulties and people problems with a real impact on the bottom line. Websites: www. accenture. com/xdoc/en/ideas/outlook/1. 2000/maa2. pdf; www. pfizer. com; www. pfizer. com/are/investors_reports/annual_2003/ review/index. htm.Sources: R. Frank and T. M. Burton, ââ¬Å"Pharmacia & Upjohn Faces Culture Clash; Europeans Chafe Under US Rules,â⬠Wall Street Journal, February 4, 1997; R. J. Thomas, ââ¬Å"Irreconcilable Differences,â⬠Accenture Outlook, vol. 1, 2000; and Pfizer, Annual Report, 2003. What kind s of cultural differences matter when organizations from different countries merge? 2 How well do the characteristics described in the case match the respective, stereotypical national cultures of these countries? 3 What could senior managers have done before and after the merger to alleviate some of the problems that resulted from culture clash? Explain why one organization might want to impose some of its ways of doing things on another, such as an acquired firm or subsidiary. INTRODUCTION The number of workers employed by foreign-owned companies has grown significantly over the past 20 years as a result of the expanding activities of foreign affiliates of MNEs around the world. For many people, both employers and employees, this has brought home the realities of globalization. An estimated 73 million people globally (including 24 million in China) now work for foreign companies, nearly three times the number in 1990.Companies such as Motorola, General Motors, British Petroleum, a nd General Electric are among the largest private-sector employers in economies such as Malaysia and Singapore. 1 This growing multicultural workforce, part of the increasingly global patterns of exchange and interaction discussed earlier in this book, makes it more and more important to understand how peopleââ¬â¢s preferences, beliefs, and values differ. Understanding international cultural differences allows us to be aware of and adapt to the differences that matter for managers. WHAT IS CULTURE? SocializationThe process of enculturation, or the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture Culture can be defined as ââ¬Å"the sum total of the beliefs, rules, techniques, institutions, and artifacts that characterize human populationsâ⬠2 or ââ¬Å"the collective programming of the mind. â⬠3 Sociologists generally talk about the socialization process, referring to the influence of parents, friends, education, and the interaction with other members of a pa rticular society as the basis for oneââ¬â¢s culture. These influences result in learned patterns of behavior common to members of a given society.As you can see, definitions of culture vary according to the focus of interest, the unit of analysis, and the disciplinary approach (psychology, anthropology, sociology, geography, etc. ). 131 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 132 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Table 5. 1 World population percentages in terms of home region, language, and religion Home region Asia Africa Europe Latin America Former Soviet bloc North America Australia and New Zealand % 58. 4 12. 4 9. 5 8. 4 5. 5 5. 2 0. 6 Language % Mandarin 14. 4 Hindi 6. 0 English 5. 6 Spanish 5. 6 Bengali 3. 4 Russian 2. 8 Portuguese 2. 6 Japanese 2. 0German 1. 6 Korean 1. 3 French 1. 3 Other 54. 4 (approx. 200) Religion Christianity, including: Catholics Protestants Orthodox Islam Hinduism Non-religious Buddhism Chinese traditional Primalââ¬âindigenous Other % 33 20 9 4 22 15 14 6 4 3 3 Sources: www. census. gov; www. adherents. com. Corporate culture The shared values, traditions, customs, philosophy, and policies of a corporation; also, the professional atmosphere that grows from this and affects behavior and performance 132 This is significant in that studies of cultural differences adopt a specific definition and set of measurable criteria, which are always debatable.Research into culture and its impact in business and management studies is highly contentious and should not just be taken at face value, including the studies described below. There is a strong consensus, however, that key elements of culture include language, religion, values, attitudes, customs, and norms of a group or society. Table 5. 1 shows how the worldââ¬â¢s population is divided according to geography, language, and religion. Language is perhaps the most important key to understanding culture in general and the specific values, beliefs, attitudes, and opini ons of a particular individual or group.English is widely accepted as the language of business; many global institutions and companies have adopted English as their official language. For many firms, such as Toyota, NEC, Hitachi, and IBM Japan, English-speaking ability is a prerequisite for promotion. 4 However, any assumption that speaking the same language removes cultural differences is dangerousââ¬âit normally just hides them. Moreover, a reliance on English by British and American managers, and a lack of other language skills, can weaken their ability to empathize with and adapt to other cultures.Religion, linked to both regional characteristics and language, also influences business culture through a set of shared core values. Protestants hold strong beliefs about the value of delayed gratification, saving, and investment. The sociologist Max Weber, writing in 1904, saw this Protestant work ethic as the ââ¬Å"spirit of capitalismâ⬠during the Industrial Revolution. 5 Rather than spending, consuming, and enjoying life now, their religious beliefs prompted the Protestants to look to longer-term rewards (including those in the after-life).There are parallels with the Confucian and Shinto work ethics, which also view spiritual rewards as tied to hard work and commitment to the fruits of industry. Contrasting this, a more stoic attitude among some African populations partly explains their acceptance of the ways things are, because it is the ââ¬Å"will of Godâ⬠(shauri ya Mungu). At the most general level culture can refer simply to the lifestyle and behavior of a given group of people, so corporate culture is a term used to characterize how the managers and employees of particular companies tend to behave.But the term is also used by human resource managers and senior management in their attempts to proactively shape the kind of behavior (innovative, open, dynamic, etc. ) they hope to nurture in their organizations. Promoting a distinctive cor porate culture is also expected to enhance the sense of community and shared identity that underpins effective organizations. RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 133 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN DIFFERENT BUSINESS CONTEXTS Cross-cultural management issues arise in a range of business contexts.Within individual firms, for example, managers from a foreign parent company need to understand that local employees from the host country may require different organization structures and HRM procedures. In cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As), realizing the expected synergies very often depends on establishing structures and procedures that encompass both cultures in a balanced way. Cross-border joint ventures, alliances, or buyerââ¬âsupplier relationships between two or more firms also require a cultural compromise.Finally, for firms to sell successfully to foreign customers requires culturally sensitive adaptations to products, services, marketing, and advertising. Figure 5. 1 outlines, at the most general level, links between business contexts and particular characteristics of individuals or groups that are influenced by social and cultural norms of a particular region. At the face-to-face level in meetings the language and behavior of different peoples vary and their mutual understanding of each otherââ¬â¢s culture will influence the effectiveness and efficiency of communication between them.This influences how well multicultural workplaces operate at all levels, from strategy setting at the senior level to plant-floor operations. Firms also tend to have different organizational and decision-making practices depending on where they have evolved and which cultures and subcultures they encompass. For firms to build successful alliances and partnerships, or for M&A activities to succeed at the company-to-company level, there needs to be an understanding of the organizational Figure 5. 1 Cross-cultural business contexts 133 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 134 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESSEthnocentrism The belief that oneââ¬â¢s own way of doing things is superior to that of others. differences between them. This covers practically every element of corporate organizations from decision-making structures and systems and managementââ¬âlabor relationships to individual employeesââ¬â¢ attitudes toward their work and their employer. Finally, culture influences the behavior and preferences of clients and customers. To sell successfully in a foreign market, a manager needs to adapt his or her product or service to meet the different needs of that particular group of customers.Any alteration in advertising, marketing, product or service features, after-sales support, technical back-up, documentation, etc. , will be partly guided by cultural differences. Failure to do this ends in the kinds of marketing mistakes and communication blunders that become marketing folklore. For examp le, Fordââ¬â¢s low-cost truck was initially marketed as the Feira to Spanish-speaking people, but this means ââ¬Å"ugly old womanâ⬠in Spanish. The Ford Comet, a high-end car, was sold as the Caliente in Mexico, which is local slang for ââ¬Å"prostitute. Unsurprisingly neither model did well in these markets. This reinforces the above point about the importance of language, but also demonstrates how some of the largest and most experienced companies do not appear to do the most basic cultural due diligence (their homework! ) when launching products and services in foreign markets. The chapter on marketing strategy in this book examines these kinds of issues more closely. Across all of the business contexts in Figure 5. 1 ignorance of cultural differences represents a common stumbling block for international managers.Ethnocentrism, the belief that oneââ¬â¢s own way of doing things is superior to that of others, can also be a major barrier to good international management . The challenge lies in recognizing differences, combining the advantages that stem from different styles and approaches, adjusting and adapting to succeed with different people, in different partnerships, and in different markets. ? Active learning check Review your answer to Active Learning Case question 1 and make any changes you like. Then compare your answer to the one below. 1 What kinds of cultural differences matter when organizations from different countries merge?The definition of culture itself gives some indicators of the kinds of differences that matter. Organizations from different countries will have developed different beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior based on their underlying national culture. A wide range of differences could be important, including attitudes toward work and workplace practices, managementââ¬âlabor relations, the decision-making hierarchy, and division of responsibilities. Cross-border M&A often also requires changes to the marketing a nd branding of products and services as sales are expanded into new markets.Differences in the language, values, and preferences of customers in different countries also need to be taken into account. Culture has always been important Cultural convergence The growing similarity between national cultures, including the beliefs, values, aspirations, and the preferences of consumers, partly driven by global brands, media, and common global icons 134 Despite the various patterns and processes of globalization, cultural differences still remain important. Even with greater common access, via various media and the Internet, to the same brands, rock icons, and sports stars, differences remain.Terms like cultural convergence or, simply, Americanization (the homogenization of global consumer preferences through the ubiquity of McDonaldââ¬â¢s, Coca-Cola, and Ford) overstate the similarities between groups of people around the world. (See the case International Business Strategy in Action: McDonaldââ¬â¢s. ) RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 135 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE International Business Strategy in Action McDonaldââ¬â¢s When Jose Bove, a self-proclaimed leader of Franceââ¬â¢s antiglobalization movement, was sentenced for vandalizing a McDonaldââ¬â¢s restaurant in 1999, he claimed to have the backing of the French people.That might have been an overstatement, but 40,000 French people were there to show their support. It was not only the French, however; in the 1990s McDonaldââ¬â¢s restaurants were vandalized in about 50 countries. At issue is the worldwide perception that McDonaldââ¬â¢s represents a particular friendly Ronald-McDonald-type of US imperialism. Traditional lifestyles, critics say, are being eroded by McDonaldââ¬â¢s marketing practices, its value chain system, its fast-food concept, and the unhealthy food itself. Yet, McDonaldââ¬â¢s bends over backwards to blend into local cultures. The company advertises itself to its critics as a lobal company owned and run by local people. Indeed, the franchise system makes it so that McDonaldââ¬â¢s Japan is run by the Japanese and Israelââ¬â¢s McDonaldââ¬â¢s restaurants are run by Israelis. Local business owners choose their menuââ¬â¢s offerings to fit their culture, find alternative suppliers, and create suitable marketing for their culture. An American in Saudi Arabia might seat single men with families at a McDonaldââ¬â¢s opening, but a Saudi Arabian owner would know that this is unacceptable and the restaurant will be designed to accommodate the culture. In the land of Jose Bove, Asterix, a French comic-strip haracter who stands for individuality and ironically symbolizes local resistance to imperial forces, replaced the goofy Ronald McDonald in the companyââ¬â¢s marketing in the early 2000s. In 1999, French McDonaldââ¬â¢s went the extra mile to prove how local it was by printing advertisements making fun of US eating habits. In one ad , a large American cowboy complains that McDonaldââ¬â¢s France does not import American beef to ââ¬Å"guarantee maximum hygienic conditions. â⬠French restaurants are more fashionably and more comfortably designed than North American ones to create an environment where customers may enjoy longer meals n accordance with French tradition. If they want, customers can order a beer from the menu. In India, where local tastes are very different from those in the United States, the company crafted an entirely different menu that does not use beef or pork due to the mostly vegetarian population. The Indian Big Mac is made of lamb. In Israel, the locally owned McDonaldââ¬â¢s purchases over 80 percent of its ingredients from local producers, including 100 percent kosher hamburger meat, potatoes, lettuce, buns, and milkshake mix. There are no cheeseburgers in Israelââ¬â¢s McDonaldââ¬â¢s because dairy products cannot be eaten together with meat.On the other hand, McDonaldâ⬠â¢s does bring its own culture to its foreign operations. In China, where childrenââ¬â¢s birthdays are not traditionally celebrated, a successful McDonaldââ¬â¢s marketing strategy encouraged birthday parties at their establishments. Not a bad deal for children, but still a cultural effect from a foreign multinational. More mundane things, such as combo meals, are popularized through McDonaldââ¬â¢s expansion. By promoting its carbonated beverages in India, the firm is unsettling the countryââ¬â¢s tea culture. The companyââ¬â¢s presence creates a cultural exchange, not a one-sided cultural takeover.Beyond reactionary behavior against McDonaldââ¬â¢s cultural ââ¬Å"impositions,â⬠McDonaldââ¬â¢s has had to suffer simply for being born in the United States. Just hours after the United States began bombing Afghanistan in 2001 McDonaldââ¬â¢s restaurants were vandalized in cities in Pakistan and Indonesia and Muslim clerics asked for the boycott of US products. For activists and cultural protectors, the most frustrating thing is that their calls go unheeded. Owners of McDonaldââ¬â¢s franchises continuously remind customers that they too are locals, that their employees are locals, and that their suppliers are mainly local.In Brazil, some anti-war protestors on their way home will stop at a McDonaldââ¬â¢s for a bite to eat. Some of McDonaldââ¬â¢s major troubles, however, are in its most established markets in the United States, Canada, and the UK. Russian and Chinese go-getters might think that a meal in McDonaldââ¬â¢s puts them in a class above, but in its two major markets of North America and Europe, where the firm derives over two-thirds of all revenue, the food is considered unhealthy. Indeed, both Canada and the UK considered imposing a tax on fatty foods on the grounds that it was damaging to peopleââ¬â¢s health and it osts the health-care system a substantial amount. The tax is unlikely to be imposed because of a str ong backlash from poverty groups who argue that this tax would place an uneven burden on those who depend on cheap food for their everyday survival. In the United States, the firm is being sued over claims that it misled parents about the nutritional value of its products, leading their children to become obese and unhealthy. McDonaldââ¬â¢s in the UK reacted by eliminating supersized options from the menu. A set of healthier options has now been introduced inEurope and North America as the company fends off critics in some of its friendliest markets. Sources: David Barboza, ââ¬Å"When Golden Arches Are Too Red, White and Blue,â⬠New York Times, October 14, 2001; Tony Karon, ââ¬Å"Adieu, Ronald McDonald,â⬠Time. com, January 24, 2002; Simon Romero, ââ¬Å"War and Abuse Do Little to Harm US Brands,â⬠New York Times, May 9, 2004. 135 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 136 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Cultures vary and these variations lead to r eal and significant differences in the ways that companies operate and people work.Moreover, because of globalization more and more firms are coming head to head with the added complexity of doing business globally, which stems from the huge amount of variety in the world that still exists (and arguably will always exist). Before moving on to examine some typologies of global cultures, here is a word of warning. Much of this section will describe how various kinds of individual and group behavior can be linked to specific cultural groups and associate these cultural dispositions with different business styles and company structures.Acting on the basis of cultural stereotypes is highly sensitive and can be problematic. For example, at the simplest level a banker may be able to prove empirically that Pakistanis are more successful than Jamaicans at starting and running small businesses around the world. Using this insight as the basis for discriminating against Jamaicans wanting bank loans for business start-ups is not only unethical, but in most countries falls foul of race discrimination laws. NATIONAL STEREOTYPES AND KEY DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE Culture at two levelsThere are traditionally two different approaches to looking at culture: à ¦ Psychic distance The psychic or psychological level, which focuses on the internalized norms, attitudes, and behavior of individuals from a particular culture (psychic distance is a measure of differences between groups). A measure of the similarity or difference between two cultures; also commonly à ¦ The institutional level, which looks at national (or group) culture embodied in defined as the measurable institutions (government, education, and economic institutions as well as in business distance between the home rganizations). market and a foreign market resulting from the perception In this chapter we will mainly discuss the first, culture as shared psychology, with a brief of cultural and business differences referenc e to national institutional differences at the end. People who are born in, or grew up in, the same country tend to share similar cultural characteristics. Nordstrom and Valhne examined a sample of Swedish firms to understand the effects of psychic distance on market-entry strategies and costs. They ranked 20 particular countries according to a range of national characteristics that contribute to psychic distance and found, as you might expect, that Denmark is closest to Sweden (1/20), the UK comes in at 6/20, Portugal at 15/20, Japan 16/20, Brazil 17/20 and Australia 20/20. Nationality and culture tend to coincide, although nations encompass a wide variety of institutions, religions, beliefs, and patterns of behavior, and distinctive subcultures can always be found within individual countries. The only way to make sense of this wide diversity is to characterize distinct cultural groups through simplified national stereotypes.Many studies have attempted to create these stereotypes b y mapping and comparing the shared characteristics of managers and employees in different countries. 7 Researchers then examine the effects of key differences on business behavior, organization, structure, and ultimately the performance of companies from different countries. The following describes the milestone studies of this kind in the management field. Hofstedeââ¬â¢s four dimensions of culture Geert Hofstede is a Dutch psychologist who conducted one of the earliest and best-known cultural studies in management, on IBMââ¬â¢s operations in 70 countries around the world. 136 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 137 Individualism index CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE Power distance index Figure 5. 2 Hofstedeââ¬â¢s power distance against individualism for 20 countries Source: Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories, Journal of International Business Studies, Fall, p. 92. Copyright à © Geert Hofstede. Getting answers to 32 stateme nts from over 116,000 questionnaires, he mapped key cultural characteristics of these countries according to four value dimensions: Power distance A cultural dimension that measures the degree to hich less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept the fact that power is not distributed equally Uncertainty avoidance The extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created institutions and beliefs for minimizing or avoiding those uncertainties Individualism The tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only Masculinity The degree to which the dominant values of a society are success, money, and material things 1 Power distance is the extent to which a culture accepts that power in organizations is distributed unequally.High power distance equates with steep organizational hierarchies, with more autocratic leadership and less employee participation in decision making (see Figure 5. 2 for examples). 2 Uncertainty av oidance is the degree to which members of a society feel uncomfortable with risk and uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance (Japan, Argentina, France) will be reflected in the high priority placed on rituals, routines, and procedures in organizations and society in general. Countries with low uncertainty avoidance (Denmark, UK, India, US) tend to emphasize flexibility and informality rather than bureaucracy. Individualism is the extent to which people are supposed to take care of themselves and be emotionally independent from others (see Figure 5. 2 for examples). 4 Masculinity is the value attributed to achievement, assertiveness, and material success (Japan, Mexico, Germany, UK) as opposed to the stereotypical feminine values of relationships, modesty, caring, and the quality of life (Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark), according to Hofstede. Figure 5. 2 illustrates some of Hofstedeââ¬â¢s findings using two of the most useful dimensions, power distance against the degree of individ ualism/collectivism.It reflects some general stereotypes of the countries included, with clear grouping of Australia, UK and US as highly individualistic and less hierarchical (small power distance) cultures against Mexico, Thailand, and Panama at the other extreme. We will elaborate on these definitions and their practical interpretation throughout this chapter. Among his most important contributions, Hofstede provided strong evidence for the significance of national culture over professional role, gender, or race, as a determinant of variation in employeesââ¬â¢ attitudes, values, and behaviors, accounting for 50 percent of the 137 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 :52 PM Page 138 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS differences his study observed. However, his studies have come in for significant criticism, despite widespread adoption of the four-dimensional framework. Three common criticisms are: (1) that the dimensions developed from data collected between 1968 and 1973 wer e relevant only for that particular period; (2) that corporate cultural and other influences from this one-organization (IBM) study created significant bias; (3) that the sole use of attitude-survey questionnaires was not a valid basis for the resulting values and dimensions his study concluded with. Although Hofstede has continued to write on culture, organizations, and management10 it is useful to look more deeply into the work of another well-known Dutch culture guru. Trompenaarsââ¬â¢ seven dimensions of culture Universalism The uniform application of rules and procedures, regardless of situation, context, or individuals involved Particularism Judging a situation and adjusting rules and procedures according to the specific situation or individuals involved Collectivism The tendency of people to belong to groups who look after each other in xchange for loyalty Neutral A preference for unemotional, objective analysis of a situation or a decision and for limited displays of emoti ons and feelings in the workplace Emotional An acceptance of emotion and subjectivity as the bases for some decision making and a preference for explicit displays of emotions and feelings in the workplace Specific A tendency to limit workplace relationships and obligations, including relative status and hierarchical position, to the workplace Diffuse A tendency for workplace relationships and obligations, including relative tatus and hierarchical position, to extend into social situations and activities outside of work 138 Fons Trompenaars built on Hofstedeââ¬â¢s work by expanding the framework for stereotyping and comparing different national cultures and by focusing more on the management implications of cultural differences. Using initial research involving 15,000 employees in 50 countries, Trompenaars explored the ââ¬Å"cultural extremes and the incomprehension that can arise when doing business across cultures,â⬠even when people are working for the same company. 1 Tro mpenaars arrived at seven distinctive dimensions of culture and used the questionnaire responses in his study to map a wide variety of countries along a continuum from one extreme to the other within each dimension. The key to understanding this mapping approach is to identify where each country or culture is positioned relative to others on one or more of these dimensions. Relative positioning gives insights into the kinds of conflicts, misunderstandings, and organizational and management problems that are likely to arise when individuals, groups, or firms from these countries interact in any of the ways described above. Universalism versus particularism. In universalistic cultures rules and regulations are applied in all situations, regardless of particular conditions or circumstances. The example used by Trompenaars refers to a salesman who does not fulfill his monthly sales quota because he was looking after his sick son. Should he be penalized according to standard company regu lations or should he be excused because of the particular circumstances? According to Trompenaarsââ¬â¢ findings, Switzerland, Canada, and the United States are among the most universalist. Australia and the UK are also toward this end of the scale.Germany is closer to the center, as is France, but the latter sits on the particularist side of the scale. Korea, Russia, and China are the most particularist of countries. (Note that some of the countries studied by Hofstede, like the strongly particularist Yugoslavia, no longer exist. ) 2 Individualism versus collectivism. This dimension, clearly building on Hofstede, centers on whether individual rights and values are dominant or subordinate to those of the collective society. The most individualist countries are Canada, the United States, Switzerland, and the UK.Among the most collectivist are Japan, Egypt, and India (and Nepal and Kuwait). 3 Neutral versus emotional. This reflects how much emotions are displayed in the workplace. M ore importantly it indicates whether emotional or subjective (rather than objective) forms of assessment are thought to be the basis for good decision making in organizations. Some organizations emphasize reports, data, and analytical decision making by managers, whereas others feel that opinions, intuition, and gut feelings are credible or valid criteria.Predictably the most emotional countries include Italy and France and the least emotional groups (in the workplace at least) are the Japanese, Germans, Swiss, Chinese, and Indonesians. 4 Specific versus diffuse. Do work relationships (such as the hierarchical relationship between a senior manager and a subordinate) exist just in the workplace (are they RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 139 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE specific), or do they extend into the social context outside the workplace (diffuse)? Here a telling example is whether an employee is willing to help paint a senior managerââ¬â¢s house over a weekend.Clearly A ustralian bosses are likely to get a characteristically blunt answer to this request! China, Japan, India, and Singapore display highly diffuse relationships, Australia and the Netherlands the most specific. Achievement oriented Where status is earned rather than a right; recruitment and promotion opportunities tend to be more dependent on performance, as in a meritocracy Ascription oriented Where status is more of a right than earned; recruitment and promotion opportunities tend to be more dependent on seniority, ethnicity, gender, religion, or birth SequentialCultures that view time in a sequential or linear fashion; order comes from separating activities and commitments Synchronic Cultures that view events in parallel over time; order comes from coordinating multiple activities and commitments 5 Achievement versus ascription. This dimension refers to oneââ¬â¢s status within organizations, contrasting those cultures where status, credibility, authority, and ultimately power ten d to be based on merit (achieved) against those where class, gender, education, or age tend to be the defining characteristics (status is ascribed).Countries where status tends to be ascribed include Egypt, Turkey, and Argentina (and slightly less so, Russia, Japan, and France), and those where it is achieved include Norway, Sweden, and predictably the United States, Australia, Canada, and the UK. 6 Attitudes toward time. Sequential (time as a sequence of events) versus synchronic (several events juggled at the same time) views of time tend to relate to punctuality for meetings and deadlines. Swedes and other northern European cultures tend to be punctual and plan according to specific timetables.Many southern European, Latin American, and Arabic cultures see punctuality and chronological precision as far less important. They also tend to naturally cope with a range of issues simultaneously, rather than one by one. 7 Attitudes toward the environment. This dimension reflects the emph asis a particular culture places on peopleââ¬â¢s relationship with nature and the natural environment. On the one hand some cultures emphasize control and subjugation of environmental forces, whereas others emphasize the need to work with nature, in harmony with the environment.Clearly religious and philosophical differences around the world influence differences within this dimension. Trompenaarsââ¬â¢ seven dimensions have been used in a variety of ways to gain insights into the kinds of problems that might arise in the contexts (face to face, company to company, and company to customer) outlined in Figure 5. 1. In general they indicate the organizational characteristics we can expect from firms based in particular countries or dominated by certain nationalities. They are also used to measure changes in cultural values and behavior over time.Research shows that in both Japan and China, for example, achievement orientation is on the increase alongside some elements of individu alism. 12 The Japanese are moving away from a reliance on collectivism in the form of the state, large firms, and group associations and placing more value on personal responsibility and individual performance. In China there is a shift in companies toward performance-related rewards and individual initiative, built on the changing views of the growing urban elite.But there are also wider concerns regarding the social costs as well as the benefits of self-interest. The GLOBE projectââ¬â¢s nine dimensions of culture More recent research has built on the Hofstede and Trompenaars research. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project began in 1992 and continues today. It has involved 150 researchers collecting data on cultural values and management and leadership attributes from 18,000 managers across 62 countries in the telecommunications, food, and banking industries. 3 In the same way as Hofstede and Trompenaars before them, the researchers plac e countries along a standard 1 to 7 scale. The GLOBE project, however, ends up with nine key cultural dimensions: 1 Assertiveness. The United States, Austria, Germany, and Greece are high; Sweden, Japan, and New Zealand are low. 2 Future orientation. A propensity for planning, investing, delayed gratification: Singapore, Switzerland, and the Netherlands are high; Russia, Argentina, and Italy are low. 139 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 140 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Gender differentiation. The degree to which gender role differences are maximized: South Korea, Egypt, India, and the China are high; Hungary, Poland, and Denmark are low. 4 Uncertainty avoidance. A reliance on societal norms and procedures to improve predictability, a preference for order, structure, and formality: Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany are high; Russia, Bolivia, and Greece are low. 5 Power distance. Russia, Thailand, and Spain are high; Denmark, the Netherlands, and Israel are low. 6 Institutional collectivism (individualism vs. ollectivism). Promoting active participation in social institutions: Sweden, South Korea, and Japan are high; Greece, Argentina, and Italy are low. 7 In-group/family collectivism. A pride in small-group membership, family, close friends, etc. : Iran, India, and China are high; Denmark, Sweden, and New Zealand are low. 8 Performance orientation (much like achievement orientation). Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States are high; Russia, Argentina, and Italy are low. Humane orientation Cultures that emphasize helping others, charity, and eopleââ¬â¢s wider social obligations 9. Humane orientation. An emphasis on fairness, altruism, and generosity: Ireland, Malaysia, and Egypt are high; Germany, Spain, France, Singapore, and Brazil are low. As you can see, many of these dimensions match those of Hofstede and Trompenaars, and the overall GLOBE framework is very much an extension of their approach. The GLOBE researchers have examine d the HRM implications of these cultural differences for practicing managers and looked at ways to avoid the pitfalls of ignorance and insensitivity. 4 A similar long-running study by the CRANET network has focused on European cultural differences and reports similar findings. 15 As with the other cultural mapping studies by Hofstede and Trompenaars, GLOBE has faced some critical appraisal, which helps us understand the strengths and weaknesses of its concluding framework. A recent set of debates has usefully raised some methodological issues associated with these kinds of studies, and provides interesting points of contention we should be aware of, rather than blindly accepting the above kind of research. 6 Applying the national culture frameworks Different styles of communication and interaction result from the cultural differences listed above. These can lead to workplace misunderstandings, poor interpersonal and intergroup relationships, inefficiency, and higher costs. Three exa mples provide some insights into how we can apply the above typologies. US managers, according to all of the above studies, are highly assertive and performance oriented relative to managers from other parts of the world (they come around the midpoint on all the other dimensions).Their interaction style is characteristically direct and explicit. They tend to use facts, figures, and logic to link specific steps to measurable outcomes, and this is the main focus of workplace interaction. Greeks and Russians are less individualistic, less performance oriented, and show lower levels of uncertainty avoidance (are less driven by procedures) than the Americans. When Russian and Greek managers, employees, customers, suppliers, or public-sector officials interact with US counterparts, they may well find their approach too direct and results focused.For them communication is likely to be more about mutual learning and an exploration of relevant issues than an explicit agreement about specific expectations and end results. Similarly, the Swedes may find the US style too aggressive and unfriendly, working against the relationship-building process that for them is a major objective of workplace interaction. The Koreans and Japanese have highly gender-differentiated societies with males tending to dominate decision making and leading most face-to-face communication. The agenda 140 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PMPage 141 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE Ethnocentric A belief in the superiority of oneââ¬â¢s own ethnic group; the dominance of the homecountry culture in decision making, human resource management, and overall corporate culture in a multinational firm for discussion is likely set by males, and traditional language forms differ according to whether a man is addressing a woman or an older person talking to a younger person, and vice versa. Gender- (and age-)related roles, responsibilities, and behaviors are therefore deeply embedded in language and customs. 7 Polan d and Denmark lie at the other end of the continuum on the gender-differentiation dimension. Perhaps even more than other Western managers, their lack of awareness of this cultural difference runs the risk of both embarrassing female employees and offending and alienating senior Japanese male managers. This kind of clash can make negotiations and interaction of all kinds between these groups that much more difficult. Certain kinds of HRM techniques are inappropriate for organizations that show high power distance ratings.Companies and management consultancies in the UK, the United States, and northern European countries have developed fairly participative management systems to improve productivity, based on their characteristically low power distance and flat organizational hierarchies. Techniques such as 360-degree feedback systems for developing managementââ¬âemployee relationships are not likely to work, however, in Mexican, Panamanian, Thai, or Russian organizations, which h ave high power distance and steep hierarchies.Subordinates are uncomfortable being asked to evaluate senior managers, and managers would not see subordinates as qualified to comment on their performance. More than this, to employees in some countries this kind of consultation can give the impression that senior managers do not know what they are doing! The employees may lose faith in senior managementââ¬â¢s ability and leave! None of the above examples means that international managers should (or ever could) entirely change their behavior to suit local values and practices.Like many of the challenges facing managers, cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural effectiveness come from striking a balance between oneââ¬â¢s own norms, values, and principles and those of the ââ¬Å"foreigner. â⬠The lesson for multinational firms is that ethnocentric corporate cultures and completely standardized HR systems do not work. The key challenge is to adapt to get the best from local diff erences. ? Active learning check Review your answer to Active Learning Case question 2 and make any changes you like. Then compare your answer to the one below. 2How well do the characteristics described in the case match the respective, stereotypical national cultures of these countries? According to the above frameworks they match reasonably well. The US culture is characterized as individualistic, achievement/performance oriented, and assertive. Most of these traits clash with the ââ¬Å"feminineâ⬠(in Hofstedeââ¬â¢s characterization) values of relationships, modesty, caring, and the quality of life emphasized by the Swedes. Hofstede finds US managers less hierarchical than most cultures, which is not indicated in the Pharmaciaââ¬âUpjohn case. However, as Figure 5. shows, both countries have a low power distance and high individualism rating, relative to other countries, but the United States has slightly higher power distance (steeper management hierarchy) than Swede n. Sweden also has a relatively high uncertainty avoidance ranking, preferring order, structure, and formality, which does not stand out in the case study. Swedes are also high on institutional collectivism but low on family or small-group collectivism. The Italians are the opposite. Unlike the Americans, the Italians are not at all oriented toward achievement (Trompenaars) or performance (GLOBE).They are also more emotional than the Swedes and Americans according to Hofstede and have a relatively low future orientation (GLOBE). 141 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 142 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ââ¬Å"The way we do things hereâ⬠: the implications of cultural differences for organizations and managers Mapping out a variety of national cultural typologies using the various dimensions of culture described above gives us some insights into the kinds of differences that exist among different groups of managers, employees, and organizations.Two key question s about the role of the individual in a firm and the role of a firm in a society from Trompenaarsââ¬â¢ study give us a starting point to explore the management implications of cultural differences. The responses in Figure 5. 3 reflect the degree of support for the particular proposition A or B for each of these questions. Americans clearly display what has been termed (originally by the sociologist Max Weber) a mechanistic and functional view of the firm as an organization (A) and a shareholderdriven, profit-oriented view of this organization in society (although more than half the US vote in Figure 5. was for option B). The Japanese tend to have a more organic view of the firm, emphasizing the importance of social networks and the obligation of the firm to a wider constituency of stakeholders (although this is a characteristic of traditional Japan that has been strongly tested in the recent recessionary environment). A wide range of factors within organizations are influenced di rectly or indirectly by the cultural predispositions of managers and employees. We know from the above studies and a wide range of other research that these factors include: The general relationship between employees and the organization: their roles and responsibilities, obligations, and loyalties and the link this has with life outside the workplace. Figure 5. 3 Excerpts from Trompenaarsââ¬â¢ cultural attitudes survey Source: Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F. The Seven Cultures of Capitalism: Value Systems for Creating Wealth in the United States, Britain, Japan, Germany, France, Sweden and the Netherlands (New York: Doubleday, 1993). 142 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 143 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE à ¦Hierarchy, power and authority, and the accepted routes to attaining these, including factors that underpin status and credibility in different societies and organizations. à ¦ The role of formal rules and regulations versus the informal communication, personal ne tworks, and hidden ââ¬Å"rules of the game. â⬠à ¦ The accepted basis for decision making, including rationale, scientific, mechanistic, and objective versus subjective, tacit, rule of thumb, etc. à ¦ The degree to which employees act and are treated as individuals or groups and the role of interpersonal relationships. à ¦ Motivation and rewards systems. Interaction and communication mechanisms. Work attitudes and the appropriate management of work attitudes have a significant influence on productivity and innovativeness in a company. Managers and employees who are motivated by their core social values to work hard and continually strive to improve their companyââ¬â¢s products and services and the processes by which they are produced are clearly a source of competitive advantage. It is interesting to note how social norms may drive a strong work ethic despite individual dissatisfaction with workload or job responsibilities.This has been shown in several companies between US and Japanese factory workers where the Japanese are found to be more loyal and aligned with company objectives but far less satisfied individually. 18 Table 5. 2 compares interview responses from sample workforces in seven countries. The resulting ranking of what it is that employees value most from their jobs shows that ââ¬Å"interesting workâ⬠is what tends to engage most people, beyond everything else. Table 5. 2 Average and intra-country ranking of work goals: a seven-nation comparison Work goals Belgium UK Germany Israel Japan Netherlands United StatesOpportunity to learn 5. 8a 7b 5. 55 8 4. 97 9 5. 83 5 6. 26 7 5. 38 9 6. 16 5 Interpersonal relations 6. 34 5 6. 33 4 6. 43 4 6. 67 2 6. 39 6 7. 19 3 6. 08 7 Opportunity for promotion 4. 49 10 4. 27 11 4. 48 10 5. 29 8 3. 33 11 3. 31 11 5. 08 10 Convenient work hours 4. 71 9 6. 11 5 5. 71 6 5. 53 7 5. 46 8 5. 59 8 5. 25 9 Variety 5. 96 6 5. 62 7 5. 71 6 4. 89 11 5. 05 9 6. 86 4 6. 10 6 Interesting work 8. 25 1 8. 02 1 7. 26 3 6. 75 1 6. 38 2 7. 59 2 7. 41 1 Job security 6. 80 3 7. 12 3 7. 57 2 5. 22 10 6. 71 4 5. 68 7 6. 30 3 Match between the people and the work 5. 77 8 5. 63 6 6. 09 5 5. 61 6 7. 83 1 6. 17 6. 19 4 Pay 7. 13 2 7. 80 2 7. 73 1 6. 60 3 6. 56 5 5. 27 5 6. 82 2 Working conditions 4. 19 11 4. 87 9 4. 39 11 5. 28 9 4. 18 10 5. 03 10 4. 84 11 Autonomy 6. 56 4 4. 69 10 5. 66 8 6. 00 4 6. 89 3 7. 61 1 5. 79 8 a First row shows average rank on a scale of 1 to 10. Second row shows ranking of work goals within each country, with a rank of 1 being most important and 11 being least important. b Source: Adapted from Itzhak Harpaz, ââ¬Å"The Importance of Work Goals: An International Perspective,â⬠Journal of International Business Studies, vol . 21, no. 1 (1990), p. 81. 143 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 144PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Three key areas capture many of the factors covered by the above typologies and cultural stereotypes, wh ere cultural differences can make a significant difference at the company-tocompany and face-to-face levels. These are organization, leadership, and communication (see Figure 5. 4). Organization Organization styles range from organic, informal, or people oriented to systematic or mechanistic, formal, or task oriented, in keeping with some common organizational dimensions described by sociologists throughout history (such as Max Weber and Emile Durkheim).Organizations that operate very much around personal relationships and social networks contrast those that are much more functional and logical. In fact different cultures and different firms display elements of both these characteristics, but the balance varies considerably and can create tensions when groups of people or firms from different ends of the spectrum interact or try to cooperate. As an aid to predicting differences among individuals, groups, or firms, and understanding the significance of these variations, relative diff erences among countries, organizations, and groups of people are important, rather than any absolute scores.For example, family companies are characteristically directive, individual oriented but organic. Multinational firms are usually more autocratic and mechanistic. Consulting and professional services firms are often mechanistic and emphasize individual performance and rewards but may also be fairly team oriented. Entrepreneurial new ventures will usually be organic, unsystematic, and group oriented. Leadership Leadership styles range from individual oriented, directive, autocratic, top down, or authoritarian to group oriented, participative, democratic, bottom up, or egalitarian.Again, cultural groups and corporations often encompass both kinds of leadership but tend to reflect one dominant style. Individual managers from cultures that score high on the power distance or assertiveness dimensions are likely to be viewed by those from other cultures as autocratic and directive bu t will tend to view others as indecisive and too compromising. They will not want to spend too much time discussing issues to achieve a consensus. If they also reflect an organic Figure 5. 4 Management dimensions of culture 144 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 :52 PM Page 145 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE or informal (low uncertainty avoidance) culture, this will result in an instinctive or unsystematic decision-making and implementation style, and they might be viewed as an unpredictable autocrat. This contrasts the combination of high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance, which results in a more directive and mechanistic style. Such leaders prefer established formal routines and a command-and-control bureaucracy, while other managers are likely to see this as over-regulated and inflexible.The Pharmacia and Upjohn case demonstrates a range of these styles and the problems that result from the imposition of a new style of organization and leadership within a corporate merger. Commun ication Culture clash When two cultural groups (national or corporate) meet, interact, or work together and differences in their values, beliefs, rules of behavior, or styles of communication create misunderstandings, antagonism, or other problems Clearly, at the face-to-face level language differences can be the most prominent barrier to communication and therefore to cooperation and coordination.English speakers tend to have an advantage in many situations since English has emerged as the main language of business globally. However, this has led to complacency among some indigenous English speakers, notably the British and the North Americans. First, less effort is often made to learn other languages and their associated cultures, which normally limits a managerââ¬â¢s understanding of foreign colleagues, workers, or customers. Second, the assumption is often made that once the language barrier is broken cultural differences are also removed, whereas these may emain, causing mis communication and misinterpretation. As for much of this chapter on culture, preparation and awareness are the best starting points for minimizing differences that can create problems. It is through efficient communication that two parties steer toward an understandingââ¬â a mutually agreed basis for doing business. The signs and signals on this route to an understanding are strongly influenced by culture. Different groups have different ways of displaying approval or of showing frustration in negotiations and different ideas of what constitutes a final agreement.The Japanese do not really have an equivalent word for the English ââ¬Å"noâ⬠and indicate disapproval in a range of non-verbal ways. The Japanese word hai does mean ââ¬Å"yesâ⬠but it often means ââ¬Å"yes, I understand what you are sayingâ⬠not ââ¬Å"yes, I agree with what you are saying. â⬠Germans place a lot of emphasis on written communications and documented evidence rather than verbal int eraction, compared to the Spanish and Italians to whom verbal interaction and agreement is recognized as binding in some contexts.The Americans prefer legal contracts and have armies of lawyers to make agreements highly specified. Other, more organic business cultures tend to work toward a relationship in which trust and understanding replace the need for legally binding contracts. Again, awareness through preparation and anticipation of differences is the best starting point for avoiding culture clash. The corporate response How have MNEs responded to the challenge of managing across cultural boundaries?What kinds of organization structures, HRM procedures, and corporate cultures have been developed to cope with the enormous differences among people and to unify this diversity toward a common purpose? At a very general level good transnational firms develop an awareness and appreciation of cultural differences among their managers and employees. They also take steps to encourage ad aptation of personal behavior or organizational practices, or products and services, to suit the changing mix of cultures within the firm, in subsidiaries and in key markets. Training programs, including a range of activities at the induction stage, when new ecruits join a firm or existing personnel take up a role in a new country, are a standard way for firms to do these things. Job rotation, with a focus on developing international managers with personal experience in a variety of different countries, is also practiced by a number of firms. It is 145 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 146 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS normally very difficult to assess such practices using any form of costââ¬âbenefit analysis. The costs are usually easily identifiable, but the benefits are very often intangible.For many exp
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